I. SERENKO

Candidate of Pedagogical Sciences

On May 1, 1948, the Ministries of Foreign Affairs of the USSR and Pakistan exchanged notes on the establishment of diplomatic relations and the establishment of representative offices with the rank of embassies. This event put both countries on the path of establishing bilateral political and foreign economic ties, opened up opportunities and prospects for their cooperation.

Due to historical circumstances, Pakistan's relations with the Soviet Union, and then with Russia as its legal successor, were rather unstable, marked by ups and downs. The mutual distrust and tension that took place in relations between the two states were caused by the bipolarity that existed in the world at that time, the military-political confrontation between the two socio-economic systems.

After the formation of the independent State of Pakistan in 1947, the establishment of diplomatic relations with the USSR progressed slowly. Initially, the Pakistani leadership informed Moscow that Pakistan's interests in the USSR would be represented by the former metropolis - Great Britain.

Despite the Soviet proposal to establish diplomatic relations, as well as certain foreign policy efforts by Moscow to recognize the Pakistani state in the international arena*, the Pakistani side was clearly in no hurry to formalize bilateral relations. For the first time, Islamabad's readiness to establish diplomatic relations with the Soviet Union was expressed in April 1948 by the Minister of Foreign Affairs of Pakistan, Zafrullah Khan, during his meeting in New York with the First Deputy Minister of Foreign Affairs of the USSR, A. A. Gromyko.

Despite the agreements reached, the process of finalizing official diplomatic relations was delayed. As a result, the first ambassador of Pakistan to the USSR, Sh. Qureshi presented his credentials only on December 30, 1949, and the first Soviet Ambassador to Pakistan, A. G. Stetsenko, took up his duties even later - in March 1950.

From the very beginning, the Pakistani leadership was oriented towards an alliance with Western states, primarily with the United States. Relations with the USSR were mostly formal at the first stage. Trade and economic relations between our countries were practically nonexistent1.

In turn, the Soviet Union sought to strengthen its influence in South Asia by establishing good neighborly relations with India and Afghanistan, which had territorial differences with Pakistan.

However, gradually, the Pakistani authorities began to realize the disadvantages and dangers of unilateral orientation towards the United States, especially when in the early 60s of the last century, there was a certain cooling in US-Pakistani relations.

This deliberate withdrawal from cooperation with the USSR, which then played a prominent role in regional politics, and unilateral orientation to the West led to the loss of significant political benefits, and the Pakistani authorities tried to correct the situation.²

In April 1965, President of Pakistan Mohammad Ayyubhan paid his first official visit to the USSR. And when the Indo-Pakistani military conflict over disputed territories in Jammu and Kashmir broke out in the same year, the Soviet Union's mediation in resolving this conflict ended with the signing of the Tashkent Declaration in 1966.

It is during this period that more constructive or, as Hafiz Malik, an American historian and political scientist of Pakistani origin, put it, "realistic relations" begin to develop between the two states³. This is reflected in the establishment of trade and economic ties and the development of cultural cooperation between the two countries.

The basis of cooperation between the two countries was the conclusion of a number of bilateral agreements: on cooperation in the search for oil and gas (1961), on the establishment of direct air links between Moscow and Karachi (1963), on the supply of Soviet agricultural machinery to Pakistan (1964), on cooperation in the energy, agricultural and communication spheres (1966), on the construction of steel plant in Karachi (1968).

Within the framework of the signed agreements, the Soviet side started providing assistance to Pakistan in training qualified personnel in the field of geological exploration, metallurgical production and construction. Thus, the training center at the Karachi Metallurgical Plant, established with the assistance of the USSR and the International Labor Organization, annually trained up to 1,500 people in 78 specialties, which contributed to the post-Soviet education.-

* For example, the USSR not only supported the early admission of Pakistan to the United Nations (September 30, 1947), but also proposed to include it in the list of States for consultations to discuss the terms of concluding a peace treaty with Germany (November 29, 1947).

further reducing Pakistan's dependence on foreign specialists in the country's new steel industry ⁴. The Karachi plant with a production capacity of 1.1 million tons of metal per year still remains a symbol of Russian-Pakistani cooperation.

The signing of the first bilateral agreement on cultural and scientific cooperation in Rawalpindi in June 1965 contributed to the rapprochement of states in the humanitarian sphere. In 1966, the Society of Soviet-Pakistani Friendship was established in Moscow. Later, the Society of Pakistan-Soviet Cultural Relations was established in Pakistan.

Researchers of the sector of Pakistan created in 1964 at the Institute of Oriental Studies of the USSR Academy of Sciences took an active part in the activities of the USSR-Pakistan Society, in particular, Yu. V. Gankovsky - first Vice-president, and then president of the society, V. N. Moskalenko, V. Ya.Belokrenitsky, S. N. Kamenev. They, as well as other scientists of the Institute (L. R. Gordon-Polonskaya, R. M. Mukimdzhanova, etc.) conducted a large research work on the problems of the history, politics and economy of Pakistan, and trained specialists in Pakistani studies.

The Institute's literary scholars studied the languages, literature, philosophy and culture of Pakistan, translated works of Pakistani poets, philosophers and writers (M. Iqbal, F. A. Faiz, S. H. Manto, H. Jalandhari, A. N. Kasmi, A. H. Shinwari, etc.) into Russian.⁵. They also studied Pakistan at other educational and research institutes in Moscow (MGIMO of the USSR Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Institute of Ethnography, Institute of Philosophy, Institute of Geography of the USSR Academy of Sciences, etc.), Leningrad, Tashkent, Dushanbe, Samarkand, Baku, etc. Tolstoy, A. Chekhov, M. Gorky.

In April 1968, during the visit of the Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the USSR A. N. Kosygin to Pakistan, a number of agreements on trade, economic, scientific, technical and cultural cooperation were signed between the two countries. This contributed to the intensification of bilateral cooperation in all areas. As a result, in the ten years from 1960 to 1970, Pakistan's share in the USSR's foreign trade turnover increased almost ^5x6: from 24 million rupees to 108 million rupees.

The USSR also significantly expanded its economic assistance to Pakistan, providing assistance in the implementation of projects in the field of geological exploration, road and rail transport, communications and communications. An attempt was made to establish ties in the military-technical sphere: an agreement was signed on the supply of Soviet tanks, artillery pieces and military helicopters to Pakistan (1969). However, later, due to political considerations related to the continuing tension in Pakistan-India relations and the priority of relations with Delhi for the USSR,this agreement was not implemented, except for the sale of a batch of MI-8 helicopters and 170 armored personnel carriers to Pakistan. ⁷

At the same time, thanks to mutual efforts, the level of foreign policy contacts has noticeably increased, and interaction between scientists, journalists and cultural figures of the two countries has intensified. It is significant, for example, that the scientific achievements of the outstanding Pakistani physicist, Nobel Prize winner Abdus Salam (1926-1996) were highly appreciated by his Soviet colleagues; in 1971, he became a foreign member of the USSR Academy of Sciences. In the early 1970s, the USSR State Committee for the Use of Atomic Energy and the Atomic Energy Commission of Pakistan launched a joint 10-year program in the field of peaceful uses of atomic energy.

Cultural ties also expanded. Pakistan has repeatedly brought its creative works to international film festivals in Moscow and Tashkent. In 1974, the National Song, Dance and Music Ensemble of Pakistan came to the USSR for the first time on tour. In turn, the performances of the Soviet circus, puppet theater and folk ensemble, which were on tour in Pakistan in 1974-1975, were very popular with the Pakistani audience.

It should be noted that the Soviet Union provided Pakistan with significant assistance in training engineers, doctors, economists, lawyers, physicists, teachers, etc. Pakistani students received free higher education in Soviet universities. In 1979, more than 300 Pakistani students were studying in the USSR.⁸

The beginning process of mutually beneficial cooperation and gradual rapprochement between the two countries was, however, slowed down by the establishment of the military dictatorship of General Zia-ul-Haq in Pakistan, who in 1977 overthrew and then executed (1979) the democratically elected president of the country, Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto, who consistently advocated strengthening Soviet-Pakistani ties. The subsequent aggravation of the foreign policy situation associated with the conflict in neighboring Afghanistan and the entry of Soviet troops into its territory in 1979 seriously worsened Soviet-Pakistani relations. In fact, at that time, Pakistan found itself in the epicenter of a global confrontation between two world superpowers-the USSR and the United States. By adopting a traditionally pro-American stance, Islamabad undermined relations with Moscow that had begun to strengthen in the 1960s and 70s.

However, the major joint projects started earlier by the Soviet Union and Pakistan were not stopped. In particular,

The construction and then commissioning of the above-mentioned Karachi steel plant continued.

Only after the change of the military-bureaucratic regime in Pakistan to a civilian form of government (1988) and the withdrawal of Soviet troops from Afghanistan (1989) did favorable conditions begin to develop again for improving Soviet-Pakistani and then Russian-Pakistani relations.

The emergence of a new democratic Russia in the global geopolitical structure was positively received by the Pakistani leadership and socio-political circles of this country. Both Islamabad and Moscow hoped for a "rapid expansion and a decisive change in the content of Russian-Pakistani relations," although, according to the former Ambassador of the USSR and Russia to Pakistan, V. P. Yakunin, these hopes turned out to be "somewhat overstated."⁹. But in any case, an attempt was made to put our relations on a pragmatic, economically mutually beneficial basis, free from the ideological burden and perception of each other through the prism of relations with third countries.

During the visits to Pakistan of Russian Vice-President Alexander Rutsky (1991) and Foreign Minister Alexander Kozyrev (1993), the prospects for military-technical cooperation and, in particular, the possibility of supplying Pakistan with modern Russian weapons systems in exchange for Pakistani consumer goods were again considered. However, no agreement was reached at the time. During the return visit to Moscow of Pakistan's Foreign Minister Asif Ali (1994), a draft Russian-Pakistani Treaty on cooperation and principles of mutual Relations, as well as drafts of other documents on cooperation in various fields, was initialed. Their signing was planned to take place during the official visit to Moscow of the then Prime Minister of Pakistan Benazir Bhutto, which, however, did not take place due to the internal political crisis that broke out in the country and the resignation of its government (1996).

The inertia of foreign policy stereotypes towards each other, preserved since the Cold War, did not allow Russia and Pakistan to move quickly along the path of establishing mutually beneficial and multifaceted cooperation. Moreover, trade and economic relations have even begun to decline. Thus, the volume of trade decreased from $ 98 million in 1992 to $ ^{72 million in 1998.10}

However, Russian and Pakistani diplomacy, the public and academic circles of the two countries did not stop trying to establish a constructive dialogue. The problems of bilateral relations in the light of the new geopolitical situation in the South Asian region and in the world as a whole were repeatedly discussed by Russian and Pakistani scientists, as well as representatives of interested departments and business circles of the two countries at various international conferences and seminars, including in Moscow.

The Russian side, in particular, has repeatedly proposed to develop the relations that were successfully launched in the Soviet era in the oil and gas and metallurgical industries, to establish cooperation in the field of energy, irrigation and land reclamation, as well as in the field of the latest technologies. Offered to help Pakistan train specialists in various fields ¹¹.

Former Pakistani Ambassador to Russia Tanveer Ahmad Khan (1994-1997) highly appreciated the efforts of Russian Orientalists aimed at developing relations in the scientific sphere. He has repeatedly called on the Pakistani side to use Russian Oriental studies in developing a strategy for bilateral cooperation.¹²

The signing in 1997 of the agreement on scientific, technical and cultural cooperation between Russia and Pakistan (the project was agreed in 1994) is to some extent the merit of T. Ahmadkhan. This agreement significantly revived bilateral scientific contacts. Russian and Pakistani scientists have started implementing joint projects on space exploration and the use of satellite telecommunications ¹³.

At the same time, the 1997 agreement has not been fully implemented. Islamabad's pro-Taliban position led to the curtailment of foreign policy contacts in the late 1990s, which was accompanied by a decline in the level of cooperation in all areas.

The threat of international terrorism looming over the world at the beginning of the XXI century has made significant adjustments to the foreign policy of most countries, uniting them in a joint fight against this evil of our time. Russia and Pakistan will also join-

We joined the international anti-terrorist coalition, which opened up additional opportunities for bilateral cooperation.

The official visit of Pakistani President Pervez Musharraf to the Russian Federation in February 2003 brought relations between the two countries out of a state of stagnation, raising them to a new level. Speaking at a press conference following his visit to Russia, the President of Pakistan, in particular, said that a "new era of friendship" is beginning between the two countries and for its development both states "must take everything useful from the past and bury everything bad" ¹⁴.

During the meeting, the Presidents of the two countries outlined the common views of Russia and Pakistan on many regional and global issues, including the prevention of an arms race in outer space, the fight against international terrorism and religious extremism, illicit trafficking in nuclear materials and drugs, and transnational organized crime. Areas of promising mutually beneficial cooperation were outlined: energy, metallurgy, oil and gas production, telecommunications and the use of space technologies ¹⁵.

The intensification of foreign policy contacts between the two countries, including support for each other in organizations such as the Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC), where Russia has observer status, and the Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO), where Pakistan, with Russian support, was also admitted as an observer in 2005, have had a positive impact on the entire spectrum of Russian-Pakistani relations.Pakistan relations. The trade turnover between the two countries has been growing again: in 2003, the total volume was $ 100 million, in 2005 - $ 278 million, and by 2007 it exceeded $ 400 million. ¹⁶

An important step in achieving mutual understanding and cooperation between the two countries was the adoption in February 2003 of the Program of Cooperation in the field of science, Culture and education for 2003-2006. The implementation of this program contributed to more active cooperation between the academies of sciences of the two countries, the Ministries of Culture and Education of the Russian Federation and Pakistan. The exchange of scientific and cultural delegations, joint scientific, educational and cultural projects are gradually becoming the reality of Russian-Pakistani relations.

The commitment of Moscow and Islamabad to the course of mutually beneficial cooperation was once again confirmed during the official visit of Russian Prime Minister Mikhail Fradkov to Pakistan (April 2007), who noted that "Pakistan occupies an important place among Russia's foreign policy partners" and stressed the importance of constructive interaction with it in regional and global affairs.¹⁷ And here we can see the efforts of Russian diplomacy to "align" and" diversify "Russia's foreign policy strategy in South Asia, giving it a" more balanced and adequate character " ¹⁸.

Despite some current differences on a number of foreign policy and economic aspects, ¹⁹ there are currently favorable opportunities for further development of cooperation between the Russian Federation and the Islamic Republic of Pakistan.

Success on this path is determined not only by the efforts of official diplomacy, but also by tapping into the previously untapped potential of "people's diplomacy" through the activation of direct contacts in the field of science, culture, education, tourism, sports, through the media and mass communications, as well as non-governmental organizations.

In the new conditions, thanks to the joint efforts of official and "people's diplomacy", Russian-Pakistani relations may well reach a new level of interstate dialogue and partnership.

The election of the new President of Pakistan, Asif Ali Zardari, can contribute to the development of relations between the two countries in this direction.

¹ See: USSR and Pakistan, Moscow, 1984, pp. 15-18, pp. 27-31.

^{2. Iqbal V.} 2 Pakistano-rossiiskie otnosheniya [Pakistani-Russian relations], in Pakistan, the countries of South Asia and the Middle East: history and Modernity. Collection of articles in memory of Yu. V. Gankovsky, Moscow, 2004, pp. 87-97.

^{Hafeez Malik.} 3 Pakistan's Troubled Relations with the Soviet Union // Domestic Determinants of Soviet Foreign Policy towards South Asia and the Middle East. London, 1990, p. 170.

^{Serenko I. N.} 4 Sistema obrazovaniya v Izlovoy Respublike Pakistanii [The education system in the Islamic Republic of Pakistan]. Moscow, 2006, pp. 109-111.

^{Belokrenitsky V. Ya., Moskalenko V. N.} 5 Vzglyad na razvitie otechestvennogo pakistanovedeniya [A look at the development of domestic Pakistani studies]. Issue No. 11, Moscow, 2002, pp. 89-97.

^{Kamenev S. N.} 6 Russian-Pakistani economic relations//Pakistan in the Modern world, Moscow, 2006, pp. 78, 81.

^{Iqbal V.} 7 Decree. soch., p. 95.

^{Hafeez Malik.} 8 Op. cit., p. 173.

^{Yakunin V.} 9 Ponimat partnera [To understand a partner]. Aziya i Afrika segodnya. 1997, N 8. p. 48.

^{Kamenev S. N.} 10 Decree. soch., p. 87.

¹¹ For more information, see, for example: Gankovsky Yu. V., Veselov V. T. International Conference "Russian-Pakistani Relations" // Vostok, Moscow, 1996, No. 1, pp. 152-153; Serenko I. N. International seminar "Pakistan and South Asia on the threshold of the XXI century" / / Vostok. 1998, N 4, p. 176.

^{Tanvir Ahmad Khan.} 12 Russian Orientalism. - The News. Islamabad, 27.08.1997, p. 7.

^{Kamenev S. N.} 13 Decree. soch., pp. 90-92.

¹⁴ The final press conference of the President of Pakistan P. Musharraf was held in Moscow on February 6, 2003. The author of this article was present at this conference and therefore allowed himself to quote some statements of the Pakistani president. For the final press conference, see also: The Moscow Times. Moscow, 07.02.2003.

^{Kamenev S. N.} 15 Decree. soch., pp. 100-102.

^{Kamenev S. N.} 16 Prospects of Russian-Pakistani relations - www.iimes.ru/rus/stat/2007/18 - 04

^{www.strana-ru/stories/} 1706/l 1/

^{Yakunin V.} 18 To understand the partner.., p. 50.

¹⁹ Such "irritants" that create tension and distrust in inter-state relations include the review by the Pakistani side of the results of the auction for the privatization of a metallurgical plant in Karachi (June 2006), when Magnitogorsk Iron and Steel Works acquired a part of the state-owned shares of this plant, and the Supreme Court of Pakistan annulled the sale transaction already carried out, calculating the value of the package unduly underestimated. As a result, Magnitogorsk Iron and Steel Works switched to the Indian market, starting construction of a steel plant in the state of Orissa. As another example, we can also mention the initiative of the Russian side, announced at the NATO summit in Bucharest (April 2008), to provide air transit routes for the delivery of non-military cargo to the contingent of the NATO military bloc coalition forces stationed in Afghanistan as an alternative to the existing but unsafe Pakistan transport corridor, which Islamabad strongly objected to, because This most sensitively affects the economic interests of Pakistan. For more information, see: Rudnitsky A. Yu. On Russian approaches to the development of relations with India and Pakistan / / Pakistan in the modern world, Moscow, 2006, pp. 125-127.

Permanent link to this publication: