Today the concept of "Islamic Reformation" acts as a universal framework for a large number of research projects within the field of Islamic and Muslim studies. This theory, mediated by Western modernization theory, claims a comprehensive understanding of Islamic reality and thus attracts many researchers. However, this universality results in a lack of attention to some important areas, which stimulates criticism from experts on Islam. The aim of this article is to identify and characterize the main approaches to understanding the phenomenon of "Islamic reformation." There are three different groups of researchers who accept the concept's validity, among whom there is no unity regarding its content. The first group talks about "Islamic reformation" as a positive political program, while the second connects it exclusively with the negative phenomenon of Islamic radicalism. The third group does not engage in polemics about "Islamic reformation," but rather consistently seeks to prove the concept's inadequacy in explaining Islamic realities and to offer alternative research models. A detailed consideration of a number of works demonstrates several different approaches within one discourse on "Islamic reformation".

Keywords: Islam, Islamic Studies, Islamic Reformation, Islamic modernism, orientalism, ijtihad.

Ragozina S. "Islamic Reformation": a positive project or an artificial concept? // State, religion, and Church in Russia and abroad. 2017. N 3. pp. 51-76.

Ragozina, Sofya (2017) "'Islamic Reformation': Positive Project or Artificial Concept?", Gosudarstuo, religiia, tserkou' v Rossii i za rubezhom 35(3): 51-76.

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MUSLIM communities in Europe, the phenomenon of the "Islamic State"1, Sufi communities in North Africa-these and many other aspects of Islamic reality remain relevant research subjects for scholars with a wide variety of backgrounds. Therefore, works devoted to Islam, both in a broad sense and with an emphasis on some particular points, are often characterized by multi-disciplinarity. The works that combine different approaches of social sciences and humanities are the most successful in explaining this or that phenomenon. In many ways, it is precisely this complexity of the subject of research that determines the ongoing search for the most optimal conceptual framework.

It is worth mentioning that here we are talking, first of all, about Western social science. When working with Islamic material, the most popular is the use of concepts of Western social theory, as well as an attempt to draw analogies between phenomena occurring in the Muslim and Western world. In many ways, this practice continues and reproduces the Orientalist paradigm of knowledge about the East, which reproduces the unequal identities of "us "(the West) and" them " (the East). This article is devoted to one of these concepts that has recently become extremely popular - the "Islamic reformation". We intentionally put quotation marks, implying the artificiality of this research concept.

The current state of research on Islam shows that the concept of "Islamic reformation", setting a universal framework mediated by the Western theory of modernization, claims to be a comprehensive understanding of Islamic reality, which attracts many authors. It is worth mentioning right away that in most cases we are talking about the Reformation as an intention to carry out reforms, although sometimes there are attempts to draw parallels between the Protestant Reformation and what is happening now in the Muslim world, which will be discussed in more detail. However, the universality of this concept and its lack of attention to particular aspects makes it vulnerable and causes criticism among a number of specialists in Islam. The purpose of this paper is to identify and characterize the main approaches to understanding the phenomenon of the "Islamic Reformation". Before-

1. Prohibited in the Russian Federation by decision of the Supreme Court of the Russian Federation No. AKPI 14-1424 P of 29.12.2014.

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The proposed typology is based on a value and content criterion. The research space is divided into unequal groups of those who accept and do not accept the concept we are considering as such. In view of the reasons briefly outlined above, there are much more supporters of applying the concept of "Islamic reformation". However, there is no consensus among them regarding the content of this concept: some speak of the Islamic reformation as a positive political program, while others, on the contrary, associate it exclusively with the negative phenomena of Islamic radicalism. Finally, the third group of authors does not recognize the arguments that somehow appeal to the idea of the Islamic reformation, consistently justifying its ineffectiveness in explaining Islamic realities and offering alternative research models. The proposed scheme is not without problems and does not claim to be universal, if only because we have considered only a number of works that, however, most clearly express the research positions of each of the approaches. In addition, we have tried to demonstrate the breadth of research subjects addressed by the authors appealing to the concept of "Islamic reformation".

Approach 1: "What went wrong?": The Reformation as a positive project for liberalizing Islam

The question "What went wrong?" It is included in the title of the work of one of the most authoritative Western researchers - Bernard Lewis 2. Looking at the history of the Muslim world in detail, the author seeks an answer to the seemingly simple question: why did the once strong Muslim world now give way to the Western world? Perhaps the main reason lies in the long colonial history of the Western world's domination of most Muslim countries. In particular, since the middle of the XX century, the blame has been transferred to the United States, which retains the role of the leader of the Western world. It is also emphasized that it was Europeans who played a crucial role in the emergence of anti-Semitism in the Arab world. It seems that the main "culprit" of the decline of the Muslim world is Western imperialism. However, after much reasoning and argumentation, the author comes

2. Lewis, B. (2002) What Went Wrong? Western Impact and Middle Eastern Response. Oxford University Press.

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We conclude that an increasing number of people in the Middle East are no longer looking for an "external enemy" and are beginning to ask the question differently: "What did we do wrong?" and "How do we fix this?"

This paper fully reflects the main idea of the first approach outlined by us. Within the framework of the Western theory of modernization, Islam (in the broadest sense of the word - from the philosophical system to socio-political ideals) is perceived as a deviation from the Western logic of the historical process and social development. In this case, the Western model of development acts as an indisputable universal. In this logic of reasoning, the questions of what is wrong with Islam and what to do about it sound more than convincing. Hence the specific cognitive tools used to study Eastern societies. The concept of "development" in Western theory is loaded with a positive value connotation: for example, it is understood as a movement towards democracy, thereby intersecting with the concept of progress.3 Therefore, reform acts as a necessary tool for achieving a certain social ideal. And then the term "reformation" is used not so much as an analogy with the Protestant Reformation, but as the need for large-scale reforms in principle.

Often, in this issue, modern authors refer to the legacy of those who in Western and domestic historiography are usually called Islamic modernists. Islamic modernism is a socio-political movement and a philosophical trend that peaked at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries, combining attempts to understand the new place of the Muslim world in the conditions of Western imperialism.

The central points of Islamic modernism were arguments about the relationship between the rational and the divine, the problem of doctrinal pluralism and methods for achieving it, as well as more instrumental discussions about the political ideal of Muslim societies.

Jamalludin al-Afghani (1838-1897) is considered one of the founders of the tradition of Islamic modernism. After spending half his life in Afghanistan and India, he emigrated to Europe in the early 1870s, where he created most of his works.-

3. Rustow, D.A. (1970) "Transitions to Democracy: Toward a Dynamic Model", Comparative Politics 2(3): 337-363; Rostow, W.W. (1960). The Stages of Economic Growth: A Non-Communist Manifesto. Cambridge University Press.

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bot. One of the main ones for al-Afghani is the thesis about the opposition of the Islamic world to the Western one. Citing numerous historical examples, he points out that, despite the former greatness, the world of Islam is now in oblivion. He recognizes the dominance of the Western world and in one of his articles, "Islam and Christianity and their followers", looks for the reasons why "how could it happen that the" nation of peace and kindness "(Christianity) prevailed over the "nation of wars and victories" (Islam), and Muslims were under the rule of Christians?"4. He comes to the conclusion that the Reformation of the XVI-XVII centuries, the split of Christianity into several confessions stimulated competition not only in religious, but also in other spheres of public life, which led to an increased pace of development. In particular, he points to the indisputable leadership of the Christian civilization in the field of scientific knowledge, which the Muslim world needs to adopt. "Industry cannot develop successfully without relying on physics, chemistry, and mechanics... All the prosperity and wealth of a nation is based on science... Anyone who imposes a ban on certain sciences, imagining that by doing so he is saving religion, is its enemy. " 5 Highly appreciating the scientific progress of the Western world, he expressed the idea that in order to achieve similar results in the Islamic world, Islam also needs to be reformed, but this should be done in a completely different scenario. "The religious reformation was simply instrumental. Religious reform, in his view, was the key to European progress and power, and was necessary for the Islamic world to achieve the same goals. " 6
What should this reform consist of? Its main goal is to unite Islam, that is, to erase insignificant theological differences between different branches of Islam7. How do I achieve this? First of all, open the "gate of ijtihad".

4. Sikoev R. R. Panislamizm: istoki i sovremennost ' [Pan-Islamism: origins and modernity]. Jamalludin Afgani and his religious and political followers of the XX-early XXI century, Moscow: Aspect Press, 2010, p. 54.

5. Stepanyants M. T. Islam v filosofskoy i obshchestvennoi mysli zarubezhnogo Vostoka XIX-XX vv [Islam in the philosophical and social thought of the Foreign East of the XIX-XX centuries].

6. Keddi, N.R. (1972) Sayyid Yamal ad-Din al Afghani, p. 141. Berkley: University of California Press.

7. Keddie, N.R. (1968) An Islamic Response to Imperialism. Berkeley: University of California Press.

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Ijtihad is the activity of the theologian in studying and solving issues of the theological and legal complex in view of the constantly changing living conditions of the Muslim community. 8 Ijtihad as making a personal judgment is also understood as one of the sources of Muslim law (opposed to qiyasu-judgment by analogy with the situation described in the Qur'an and Sunnah). In the period from the 7th to the 11th centuries, there was an active process of interpretation of various issues, which led to the formation of a number of madhhabs - religious and legal schools. It is believed that all the main questions were answered, then only some more specific questions were clarified, so "the gates of ijtihad were closed."

However, the end of the 19th century gave rise to many new questions, the answers to which, according to Islamic modernists, could be found only by going beyond the established practice of taqlid-following religious authorities without first doubting the truth of their judgments. Ijtihad was supposed to be the main tool here. For example, the Indian poet Muhammad Iqbal (1877-1938) saw ijtihad as a catalyst for the intellectual revival of Islam necessary to build a dynamic democratic society.9 Muhammad Abdo (1849-1905), a disciple of Jamalludin Al-Afghani, cites ijtihad as one of the reasons for the success of the first generations of Muslims, and therefore calls for this practice to be applied at the present stage. Ijtihad is a continuation of the Islamic tradition, and "the Qur'an is always the last pillar that keeps the Ummah from falling into the abyss." 10 Abdo chooses the middle path of enlightened Islam, which recognizes the value of intelligence and modern scientific knowledge, while at the same time honoring the divine as the source of human morality. 11 Rashid Rida (1865-1935) actualizes the problem of ijtihad in the context of political theory. It restricts the Caliph's right to ijtihad by transferring some of the power to make political decisions.-

8. Ijtihad // Miloslavsky G. V., Petrosyan Yu. A., Piotrovsky M. B., Prozorov S. M. (Executive Secretary) Islam. Encyclopedia M.: Science. Main Editorial Office of Eastern Literature, 1991, p. 91

9. Fareed, M.G. (2004) "Ijtihad", in R.P. Matin (ed.) Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World, pp. 345, 356. Thomson&Gale.

10. Al-Janabi M. Philosophy of the modern Muslim Reformation. 2014.

11. Zimney, M. (2009) "Abduh, Muhammad", in J.E. Campo (ed.) Encyclopedia of Islam, p. 6. Facts On File.

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the most respected representatives of the Muslim community. In this sense, he appeals to the idea of the need to reform Muslim society, but this idea of a political consultative institution is opposed to the European principles of democracy. At the end of the 19th century, the relationship between taqlid and ijtihad shifted from legal to symbolic: taqlid was associated with the cause of the deterioration of Muslim societies in the world, while ijtihad was associated with the idea of reform.

In addition, ijtihad in the philosophy of Islamic modernism is also understood in a broader context - as a means of rational cognition. For example, for M. Abdo, those norms that have received rational justification through ijtihad are given priority. One example of the use of rational reasoning is an attempt to understand the so-called "miracles" of Islam: for example, the ascension of Muhammad (miraj). Rifaa Al-Tahtawi, in his biography of the Prophet Muhammad, published in 1865, tries to appeal to the scientific logic of excluding the impossible. He argues that if we deny the ascension of Muhammad, then we must also deny the appearance of the archangel Gabriel on earth, but this is impossible. Mustafa Al-Maraghi says that the only" abstract " miracle is the Qur'an, since it does not violate natural laws. Farid Waji evaluates the activities of the Prophet Muhammad through the prism of social science and says that the social changes that occurred in the Arabian Peninsula during his activity are a real miracle. And he describes such miracles as the "splitting of the moon" and the "opening of the breast" as myths 12.

The most important thing, in our opinion, is to pay attention to the fact that turning to reformist rhetoric, however, the main task for these authors was to continue the Islamic tradition. Despite the use of European terminology and the copying of rationalistic models of argumentation, the essence of the reformation was not to blindly reproduce Western practices and "adapt" the Islamic tradition to them, but to appeal to established religious and legal sources and political models. However, most of the projects are aimed at reforming Islamic societies

12. Sallah, A. (2015) "Islamic Modernists and Discourse on Reason as a Reconciliatory Argument between Islam and the Western Enlightenment", International Journal of Islamic Thought 7: 11-24.

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exactly in this vein, for various reasons, they remained unrealized (perhaps only with the exception of the Abu Ala Maududi project in Pakistan).

The idea of reformation was again in demand in the wake of the emergence of the phenomenon of so-called radical Islam, and especially after the events of September 2001. Many contemporary authors appeal to Islamic modernism, reincarnating the concept of "Islamic Reformation" to explain contemporary events. However, if the Islamic modernists tried to remain (and still did) in the bosom of the Islamic tradition and used Western concepts only as a tool, now these same concepts replace the essence of the ongoing processes: for example, the Reformation is replaced by liberalization, and the essential characteristics of the Protestant Reformation are extrapolated to the Islamic world.

It is in the logic of such reasoning that the contrast between radical and "good" Islam becomes relevant: correct, moderate, and so on. Islam has a certain problem - "something is wrong with it", so the reformation is considered as a universal tool that will correct the current state of affairs. What exactly is wrong? This is the fundamental question for this approach, and various programs of "Islamic reformation"are proposed to answer it. It is worth noting that this approach is equally popular among researchers of Islam, as well as among Muslim intellectuals and public figures. Moreover, the latter often turn to the rhetoric of the "Islamic reformation" in a rather emotional way.

So, for example, you can often see calls to "start the Islamic reformation right now", that is, to radically rethink the foundations of modern Muslim society. Salman Rushdie, a British writer who was born in Bombay to a Muslim family of Kashmiri origin, says that the current state of Islam dictates the need to start a Muslim reformation, not only to resist jihadist ideology, but also to get rid of "dusty and stuffy seminaries of traditionalists and breathe a breath of fresh air" 13. The essence of the reformation should be a re-interpretation-

13. Rushdie, S. (2005) "The Right Time for An Islamic Reformation", Washington Post. 7.08.2005 [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/08/05/AR2005080501483.html, accessed on 23.01.2017].

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We need to adapt the Qur'an in the light of modern times, so that the laws of the seventh century can meet the realities of the twenty-first century.

Ayaan Hirsi Ali, the daughter of Somali opposition politician Hirsi Magan Isse, who emigrated to the United States, where she began to conduct active public work, points out in her book "Why does Islam need Reformation now?"14 that Western liberals misidentified their enemy: not terrorists, but the medieval version of Islam is the greatest danger. Turning to the history of Islam during the time of the Prophet Muhammad, she suggests dividing Muslims into three groups: "Meccan", "Madinah" and "changing". In Mecca, Muslims were engaged in peaceful conversion activities, while in Medina, the paramilitary component increased. Therefore, the" Meccan Muslims", who are the majority, practice a" peaceful religion", while the "Madinah" ones resort to violent methods. Finally, "changing" Muslims have realized the need to reform Islam, as they think about its future. Her proposed program of Islamic reformation consists of five theses: (l) Ensure that the Qur'an can be interpreted and critically interpreted, (2) Give priority to this life over the Hereafter, (3) "remove the shackles of sharia" and subordinate it to secular law, (4) Stop the practice of determining what is right and prohibiting what is wrong, and (5) End calls for jihad.15
A well-known American TV host of Iranian origin, Reza Aslan, also defends the idea that the Islamic reformation should become (and somewhere has already become) a tool for liberalizing Islam. For him, the main goal of the reformation is to adapt Islam to democratic principles, as "representative democracy is perhaps the best social and political experiment in the world." 16 Democratic ideals such as constitutionalism, government accountability, pluralism, and human rights are already accepted in many Islamic countries. Secularism is not a prerequisite for putting these concepts into practice: they are quite applicable to a religious society. I wonder what the names are-

14. Ayaan, H.A. (2016) Heretic: Why Islam Needs a Reformation Now. Harper Paperbacks.

15. Joseph, C.B. (2017) "Heretic: Why Islam Needs a Reformation Now", The European Legacy 22(1): 94-96.

16. Asian, R. (2005) No God but God. The Origins, Evolution, and Future of Islam. Random House.

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but Muhammad Abdo, in his opinion, adapted the language of democracy to Islamic rhetoric.

As for the scientific discourse, it is worth saying that the understanding of Islamic practice in the context of "the need to change Muslim societies" has given rise to a whole field of research devoted to the problem of the relationship between Islam and democracy.17 Despite the fact that the authors do not refer to the terminology of the Reformation, we can say that they continue this research tradition.

Professor Daniel Pipes of Harvard University is one of the most prominent proponents of the idea of liberalizing Islam. To modernize Islam, Muslims must learn from the experience of their fellow monotheists, and clarify Islam's attitude to slavery, secession from Islam, and so on. Then a reformed modern Islam will no longer support women's inequality, jihad or suicide terrorism, and will no longer demand the death penalty for adultery, blasphemy and apostasy.18 D. Pipes blames "westernizing anti-Islamists"for promoting such a positive program of action. "They are weak and fragmented, but they exist, and they represent the only hope in defeating global jihad and the idea of Islamic supremacism, and replacing it with an Islam that does not threaten civilization."

The same applies to the question of "embedding" / adapting/ finding the optimal balance between the norms of Sharia and secular legislation.

Wilfried Reid Clement points out that there is no alternative to the implementation of the Islamic reformation project, since "in modern economic conditions, the Islamic world has remained at the level of the mid-13th century" 19. V. R. Klement's position is particularly radical: Islam has not made any contribution to world knowledge

17. См. например: Sachedina, A. (200l) Islamic Roots of Democratic Pluralism. Oxford University Press; Hasemi, N. (2009) Islam, Secularism, and Liberal Democracy. Toward a Democratic Theory for Muslim Societies. Oxford University Press; Khatab, S., Bouma, G.D. (2007) Democracy in Islam. Routledge.

18. Pipes, D. (2013) "Can Islam Be Reformed? History and Human Nature Say Yes", Middle East Forum [http://www.danielpipes.org/13033/can-islam-be-reformed, accessed on 23.01.2017].

19. Clement, W.R. (2003) Reforming the Prophet. The Quest for the Islamic Reformation, p. 86. Insomniac Press.

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since the Middle Ages, and the only lesson learned from Western experience by clerics and rulers is that the Renaissance and Reformation in the West were a mistake. Therefore, the "real reformation" should contribute to the development of the Islamic world. It will become possible if the elements of traditional identity are minimized (as one of these elements, he calls the emphasis on the values of the "big family" as opposed to individual values). In addition, reformation is also impossible without sharia reform.

Abdullah Ahmed Al-Naim, a Sudanese scholar living in exile in the United States, offers a detailed draft of Sharia law reform. He focuses on the correlation of "Islamic public law" with the requirements of secularism. The maximum use of the potential of ijtihad will allow achieving doctrinal pluralism, and then Sharia, "being a product not of divine, but of human interpretation," will meet the requirements of secular legal concepts. The work that researchers most often refer to when thinking about the Islamic Reformation was published in 1990,20 Since then, A. A. Al-Naim has published such a large number of works that it is already possible to speak about his own research tradition. As a rule, A. A. An-Naim refers to the analysis of legal techniques of how Sharia can be correlated with international law, the concept of human rights, and the theory of citizenship. In addition, he is engaged in a wide popularization21, and his ideas are in great demand.

The media factor is used as an argument to justify the best time to start the "Islamic reformation". The role of Guttenberg's printing press in the Protestant Reformation era is now performed by mass education and wide Internet access. Thanks to Internet access, many Muslims have "direct access" to knowledge about Islam, on the basis of which the practice of ijtihad is again updated. Dartmouth College professor Dale Eikelman points out an important feature of modern society: one of the main points in understanding public space is the com-

20. An-Na'im, A.A. (1990) Toward an Islamic Reformation: Civil Liberties, Human Rights, and International Law. Syracuse University Press.

21. An-Naim's personal website [https://scholarblogs.emory.edu/aannaim/, accessed on 23.01.2017].

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communication aspect 22. Open discussions, which primarily characterize communication on the Internet, form a new symbolic language of Islam, and the phenomenon of "creative interaction" appears. According to D. F. Eikelman, these processes bring Islam closer to the democratic tradition. Alexis Kort even introduces a special term for this segment of the communication space, calling it 'Dar Al-Saiber Islam'.23 Continuing Eikelmann's logic, in his article he addresses a specific case of communication about domestic violence against women. According to the author, discussions on the Internet and" new Ijtihad " indicate reformist tendencies in modern Islam, as they play a positive role in countering domestic violence and addressing the problem of disenfranchisement of Muslim women.

By the way, supporters of this approach call the emergence of the phenomenon of Islamic feminism a successful result of the "Islamic reformation" process. Again, without referring to the terminology of the Islamic Reformation, the understanding of various aspects of this phenomenon in all countries of the Muslim world has already taken shape in a separate research area, similar to studies on Islam and democracy.24
Thus, representatives of the approach discussed above try to prove that Islam is not only not a peculiar archaic obstacle to modernization, but, on the contrary, an integral part of it. In this regard, various programs of reformation of Islam (in the sense of structural changes and adaptation to new conditions) are proposed, often amounting to its liberalization. The position of the need to borrow Western institutions and explain their compatibility with Islam is consistently defended. By creating the dichotomy "radical vs liberal Islam", the thesis is substantiated that the problem of " bad " Islam can be solved either at the expense of

22. Eickelman, D. (2003) "Inside Islamic Reformation", in B. Rubin (ed.) Revolutionaries and Reformers. Contemporary Islamist Movements In The Middle East, pp. 203-205. State University of New York Press.

23. Kort, A. (2005) "Dar al-Cyber Islam: Women, Domestic Violence, and the Islamic Reformation on the World Wide Web", Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs 25(3): 363-383.

24. See for example: Kynsilehto, A. (2008) Islamic Feminism: Current Perspectives. Tampere Peace Research Institute; Bahi, R. (2011) "Islamic and Secular Feminisms: Two Discourses Mobilized For Gender Justice", Contemporary Readings in Law and Social Justice 3(2): 138-158.

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bringing Islam in line with Western norms, or by justifying that all values that are positioned as Western are in fact fully inherent in the Islamic tradition. And even if there is no direct analogy with the Protestant Reformation, in fact, we are talking about an attempt to develop some kind of Islamic Protestant ethics that will successfully correlate with the Western Modernist project.

Approach 2: The Reformation as an unpredictable radicalization of Islam

Another group of scholars also accepts the use of the term "Islamic Reformation" to describe modern processes. However, they put a completely different content in it. Based on the same premise that problems are inherent in the very nature of Islam, the reformation here appears not as a positive tool for "correcting Islam", but as a kind of" pessimistic " framework for stating a negative picture of the world. Islamic radicals are "Islamic reformers" who appeal to the idea of returning to their roots and reject the challenges of Western Modernity. Thus, on the one hand, the problem of violence comes to the fore here, and on the other hand, the problem of alternatives to the Western path of development is reflected in a broader way.

This position largely goes back to S. Huntington's theory of the clash of civilizations, where a special emphasis in the framework of the "fault lines between civilizations" is placed on the confrontation between Western and Islamic civilizations. "The military confrontation between the West and the Islamic world has been going on for a century, and there is no sign of easing it,"he said.25. It traces the history of this antagonism back to the 13th century. Despite widespread criticism of this concept, it is impossible not to recognize its influence and wide application.

The main concepts used by the authors in describing the ideology of Islamic reformers are bid'a and al-Salaf al-salih.

Bid'a means an innovation that is usually associated with a misconception about the interpretation of the Qur'an and Sunnah. Throughout the history of theological and legal thought, he has repeatedly taken the lead-

25. Huntington S. Clash of civilizations? // Policy. 1994. N1. pp. 33-48.

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a question about the limits of what is permitted according to the sacred texts. The Madinah society of the time of the Prophet Muhammad is regarded as a socio-political ideal. Therefore, there was another explanation for the" bad " situation of Muslims: there were too many innovations that distanced Muslims from the ideal time of the Prophet Muhammad. As a solution, it was suggested to return to the experience of our ancestors-as-Salaf al-Salih.

Ibn Taymiyyah (1263-1328) and Abd al-Wahhab (1703-1792) are considered the" founding fathers " of this doctrine in Islam. The former called for the "purity of Islam" and the rejection of innovations, criticizing "attempts to introduce into Islam elements of philosophy focused on the Hellenic-Hellenistic traditions (Falsafa), rationalism of the Kalam, the cult of saints and the practice of pilgrimage to the tomb of the Prophet".26 As for his political theory, he argued for the inextricable link between religion and religion. states, because without sharia law, the state descends into tyranny. Thus, the essence of the renewal of Islam was to return to its roots. As for Abd al-Wahhab, he adopted the concept of Ibn Taymiyyah and also emphasized the concept of tawhid, which he understood as strict monotheism, which was an essential characteristic of correct Islam. Its ideology was instrumentalized and used in the creation of the Saud state. I must say that both of them positively assessed the potential of ijtihad practice. For them, it was also a resource for the reformation of Islam, but in a completely different way: here ijtihad is used for a literal interpretation of the Koran, which was successfully used in updating the image of the ideal past in the present.

The main drivers of the reformation, therefore, are fundamentalists or, as they are sometimes called, Salafists. This is not the end of the list of terms. Thus, Z. I. Levin offers an original classification of representatives of the reform movement in Islam. First, they are "revivalist Salafists-guardians of the Word", whose representatives are Ibn Taymiyyah, Abd-Al-Wahhab and Ahmad ibn Hanbal, as the founder of the "most strict religious and legal school". Z. I. Levin places Al-Afghani in the second group,

26. Ibn Taymiyya // Miloslavsky G. V., Petrosyan Yu. A., Piotrovsky M. B., Prozorov S. M. (executive Secretary) Islam. Encyclopedia M.: Science. Main Editorial Office of Eastern Literature, 1991, p. 85.

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M. Abdo and others and calls them " Salafi reformers-guardians of the Spirit of Scripture." "Salafi reformism, unlike other reform movements in the religious consciousness of Muslims, not only undermines the fixed cruelty of orthodoxy, but also undermines the foundations of its sanctified traditional society."27. Finally, the activities of traditionalists are primarily linked to a number of contemporary Islamist movements that have adopted the ideas of Salafi reformers and Salafi revivalists in one way or another. Thus, in general, Z. I. Levin agrees that both the Protestant Reformation and the Reformation in Islam have the same goal - to adapt the religion to the new conditions of the time. However, while "the Reformation was a spiritual and political revolution that violated the canon, ... Muslim reformism did not encroach on the canon, limiting itself to its interpretation." 28 It turns out that the radical interpretations used by Islamists are nothing more than a consequence of Islamic doctrine - an important thesis for proponents of this approach.

Another Russian researcher, A. Ignatenko, also defends the thesis about the endogeneity of radicalism in Islam29. The process of sects 'emergence is a" natural way of Islam's existence" and all Islamist organizations are a natural stage in the development of Islamic societies. Religion is not an external rhetorical element for organizations like Al-Qaeda or other numerous Islamist movements operating around the world, but represents a certain organic stage in the development of Islam as such at the present stage. As a proof of this thesis, A. Ignatenko points out the possibility of applying the methodology of Al-Shahrastani's classic work "Books on Religion and Sects" to the analysis of modern Islamist movements.30
As can be seen from the arguments of Z. I. Levin and A. Ignatenko, within the framework of this approach, the discussion is updated in a new way

27. Levin Z. I. Keepers of the Word and guardians of the Spirit of Revelation / / Fundamentalism, Moscow: Institute of Oriental Studies of the Russian Academy of Sciences-Kraft+ Publishing House, 2003, P. 26.

28. Levin Z. I. Reforma v islame [Reform in Islam]. To be or not to be? Moscow: Institute of Oriental Studies of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Kraft+ Publishing House, 2005, p. 112.

29. Ignatenko A. Endogenous radicalism in Islam / / Islam and Politics: collection of articles, Moscow: Institute of Religion and Politics, 2004, pp. 8-39.

30. Ignatenko A. Epistemologiya islamskogo radicalizma [Epistemology of Islamic radicalism]. Islam i politika: sbornik statei [Islam and Politics: a collection of articles], Moscow: Institut religii i politiki, 2004, pp. 234-241.

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on "orthodox" and "unorthodox" / "sectarian" Islam. This dichotomy is often used as an analytical tool in the analysis of Islamic radical movements to distinguish between Islam as a religious system and Islamic rhetoric used to justify a particular ideology.31 Sometimes these categories are simplified to separate" good "Islam from"bad." 32
Michael Palmer paints an even more terrifying picture. For him, the Islamic Reformation is a radical return to its roots with unpredictable consequences. Jihadists hope to reincarnate their past and make it a bulwark of opposition.: this threatens to destroy Islam, not because it is a weak religion, but because it occupies a central place in the lives of believers. While most Christians and Jews have managed to preserve the foundations of their faith only by surrendering "public square" to modernity, this practice has not yet been defined in Islam. And if Bin Laden and others like him succeed, it will no longer be necessary: because modernity will be Islamized, not Islam modernized. 33
Why did the idea of renewal through a return to the roots find such a response in Muslim societies? B. A. Roberson, in our opinion, offers the most reasonable answer to this question. The "Islamic reformer" movements represent a political alternative to weak and often discredited political institutions. First of all, this is due to the fact that by inertia they reproduce management practices that have been preserved since the colonial era.34 In other words, there was no deep political reform.-

31. Turner, H.W. (1993) "New Religious Movements in Islamic West Africa", Islam and Christian-Muslim Relations 4(1): 3-35; Hellmich, Ch. (2014) "How Islamic Is al-Qaeda? The Politics of Panlslam and the Challenge of Modernization", Critical Studies on Terrorism 7(2): 241-256

32. Lacey, J. (2014) '"Turkish Islam' as 'Good Islam': How the Gulen Movement Exploits Discursive Opportunities in a Post-9/11 Milieu", Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs 34(2): 95-110; Bryan, J.L. (2004) "In Search of 'The True' Islam: Constructing Muslim Identities in Hostile Times: The Impact of 9/11 on Arab Muslims in Jersey City", Conference Papers -American Sociological Association. 14 August.

33. Palmer, MA. (2007) The Last Crusade. Americanism and the Islamic Reformation. Potomac books.

34. Roberson, B.A. (2002) "The Shaping of the Current Islamic Reformation", Mediterranean Politics 7(3): 8.

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we are after the Europeans left. However, attempts were made: the continuation of the anti-colonial movements was the extremely popular ideology of Arab nationalism in the 50s. However, this ideological tool was not able to solve the "Israeli problem", which was the main interest of the Arab States of that period35. A number of scholars draw attention to the fact that 1967 was the point of no return: the defeat in the six-day war was not only a political defeat for the Arab states, but also an ideological collapse of the ideology of pan-Arabism. The current ideological vacuum was filled with ideas of Islamic revival - as a reincarnation of Islamic identity instead of Arab. In addition, B. A. Roberson emphasizes that the Islamic Reformation is a complex and constantly changing phenomenon. In this regard, the wording included in the title of his article "The Formation of the Islamic Reformation" is also the title of the collection of articles, which includes works devoted, according to B. A. Roberson, to the analysis of various aspects of the Islamic Reformation.36
Thus, this approach is actually the reverse side of the coin of the first approach. First, both of them proceed from a basic negative assessment of the current situation of Muslims: for this purpose, the categories of "diseases", "clashes of civilizations", "radicalism" and so on are used. In addition, radicalism often appears as an immanent feature of Islam as such. In this regard, the concept of "Islamic reformation" appears to be the most optimal for them. However, while the former are looking for an optimal way out of the current crisis, the latter suggest focusing on reflecting on the essence and negative consequences of the actions of "Islamic reformers". Second, what is less obvious, but no less significant, is that the two approaches discussed above have in common the perception of Islam as a single "organism" / "civilization" with common problems that make it possible to develop a single model for solving the problem. However, such generalizations often turn out to be extremely unproductive when referring to the real context.

35. Ibid, p. 9.

36. Roberson, B.A. (ed.) (2003) The Shaping of the Current Islamic Reformation. Frank Cass.

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Approach 3: Reformation as an artificial concept: Incorrectly established premises that redefine reality

This approach is the most heterogeneous, and combining such different researchers into one group looks extremely ambiguous. This is due to the fact that the criterion for highlighting this area has been defined extremely broadly. As mentioned above, we can say with a certain degree of confidence that the first two approaches dominate the scientific and public space, reflecting the structure of knowledge about Islam in the "Fucodian" sense. In the work "Words and things. M. Foucault's" Archeology of the Humanities "uses the special term "episteme", which implies a kind of "epistemological field", which forms the conditions for the production of scientific knowledge. 37 Therefore, the third approach includes those researchers who somehow try to go beyond the established dichotomy of "bad" and "good" Islam, offering a completely different analytical scheme, or at least making an attempt to critically reflect on the current state of affairs in the study of Islam as a whole, and regarding the applicability of the concept of "Islamic reformation" to the analysis of Muslim societies.

In an interview, Talal Asad notes that those who call for reform of Islam now to counter "Islamic extremist violence" deny that reforms have been undertaken throughout Islamic history. First of all, he continues, it is necessary to ask why jihadist movements have emerged right now.38 Indeed, the problem of reform and change is not entirely new to the Islamic tradition. The debate has its roots in philosophy and theology regarding the relationship between rationality and revelation. In fact, its beginning dates back to the seventh century, the period after the death of Muhammad, when there was an active process of developing the dogma of Islam.

37. "Key Concepts", michel-foucault.com [http://www.michel-foucault.com/concepts/, accessed on 23.08.2017].

38. Azad, H., Asad, T. (2015) "Do Muslims Belong in the West? An Interview with Talal Asad", Eutopia. Institute of Ideas [http://www.eutopiainstitute.org/2015/02/do-muslims-belong-in-the-west-an-interview-with-tal al-asad/, accessed on 24.01.2017].

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Marietta Tigranovna Stpepanyants is one of those specialists who undertake a detailed historical and philosophical analysis of the problem of change in Islam as such. It recognizes the use of the term "Islamic Reformation"in relation to a number of "mass sectarian movements", which it considers to include Wahhabism, Babism, Ahmadiyya and Mahdism. 39 However, Stepanyants strongly denies drawing any analogies with the European experience, pointing out the need to consider this phenomenon outside the comparative context. She suggests a thorough study of the philosophical tradition of medieval Muslim society, as only this can give an understanding of the specifics of the concepts of "change" and" reform " in the Muslim context.

The ontological foundations of the ideas of Muslim reformism go back to the emergence of kalam - theoretical speculative theology - and the emergence in the VIII century of the Mu'tazilite movement, which advocated a rationalistic approach to solving controversial theological issues. The Mu'tazilites exalted reason and believed that a person in his power can not only compare, but also surpass Allah.40 Another trend in Kalam was Asharism, whose representatives also appealed to the idea of "absolute reason" and rejected taqlid. By the way, the idea that the Islamic Reformation reproduces Ash'arite practices was also voiced by Stanley Lane-Poole in his book published back in 188341.

As for the epistemological foundations, here Stepanyants refers to the split that also occurred in the eighth century among the faqihs( jurists): on askhab al-hadith, who insisted on strict adherence to the word of God, and on Askhab ar-rai, who allowed the use of the rationalistic method to draw a logical conclusion on a specific issue. Again, the focus is on the permissibility of ijtihad. The "closing of ijtihad" was thus an obstacle on the way to all new things.42 Thus, Stepanyants demonstrates that the discus-

39. Stepanyants M. T. Islam in the philosophical and social thought of the Foreign East of the XIX-XX centuries. pp. 16-31.

40. Frolova ATE. Arabic philosophy. Past and Present, Moscow: Yazyki slavyanskikh kul'tury, 2010, p. 57.

41. Lane-Poole, S. (1883) Studies in a Mosque. London: W.H. Allen & Co., 13 Waterloo Place.

42. Stepanyants M. T. Islam in the philosophical and social thought of the Foreign East of the XIX-XX centuries. p. 16.

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These ideas about the need to reform Muslim society did not come out of nowhere in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. They were preceded by a centuries-old polemic of Muslim scholars who raised fundamental questions of theology and the implementation of Sharia principles.

The description of the philosophical aspects of the Muslim Reformation allows us to better understand the essence of modern Islamic movements, but it does not answer the question: why did jihadist movements appear right now? Olivier Roy, a professor at the European University in Florence, also points out that the analysis of modern Muslim realities in the context of the Reformation is not constructive. If we talk about the liberalization of Islam, then there is an obvious substitution of concepts: the problem of integrating Muslims into European society is associated with the need for reform in the bosom of Islam. But in reality, the "problem of Islam "has nothing to do with the" failed integration " or the colonial past. The link between Islam and any form of radicalism is also unconstructive: there is no objective evidence that wearing a burqa leads to joining al-Qaeda.43 The central point in understanding the problem of radicalization should be awareness of the phenomenon of nihilism. Modern Islamists are another manifestation of the New Age, they are those who want to break with the generation of their parents, break with the everyday life around them. O. Roy analyzed about 100 biographies of those who participated in terrorist activities in France, and it turned out that the common feature for almost everyone was the " second conversion to Islam"(reconversion) after they led quite a secular lifestyle 44. In this sense, attempts to integrate Islam do not lead to liberalization or reformation, but only give rise to the opposite trend, which is embodied in a radical response to the challenges of modern society. The emergence of Islam in the European context indicates a general shift in the religious landscape, a new format of relations between different communities. Liberal and fundamentalist are different forms of Islam. However, it is the foundation-

43. Roy, O. (2013) "Secularism and Islam: The Theological Predicament", The International Spectator 48(l):9.

44. Roy, O. (2017) "Who Are the New Jihadis", Guardian. 13.04.2017 [https://www.theguardian.com/news/2017/apr/13/who-are-the-new-jihadis, accessed on 21.08.2017]

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The List project is becoming more popular in the modern context of globalization and deculturation (deculturatiori), as it appeals to a "pure" religion, free from various cultural influences. Thus, O. Roy suggests going beyond the existing framework of the "no alternative need for integration of Muslims", paying attention to structural social changes that affect both Muslims and Christians, as well as representatives of other religions and spiritual movements.

Samira Hajj also speaks about the impossibility of using the concept of "Islamic reformation", since this "conceptual stretch" (in the sense of J. R. R. Tolkien) is not possible. Sartori 45) does not allow for a sufficient analysis of the social context in understanding the phenomenon of changes in Muslim society. She believes that before labeling Abd al-Wahhab as the main ideologue of jihadism, and Al-Afghani as the main advocate of reform in Islam, one should turn to a narrative analysis of their biographies. Rejecting the approach of generalizations and comparisons, using the example of a detailed examination of the life paths of these figures, she justifies the leading role of the unique social context in which these philosophers were formed and implemented their programs.

Finally, one more general criticism should be made regarding the division of Islam into liberal and radical. This approach inevitably reproduces the Orientalist paradigm of Oriental research laid down by E. Said.46 Despite the large-scale criticism of this concept, it undoubtedly has a significant impact on modern research on Islam: the narrative of the Islamic threat, the confrontation between Islamic and Christian civilization is reflected, for example, in the fact that many works are devoted to the analysis of various aspects of Islamic radicalism - within the framework of the Islamic Reformation or not. In addition, the perception of Islam as a homogeneous organism also corresponds to the logic of orientalism. It is in this case that artificial typologies such as "Salafist-moderate", "migrant-loyal to the state" are possible. And then the incorrectly described reality

45. Sartori, G. (1970) "Concept Misformation in Comparative Politics", American Political Science Review 64(4): 1033-1053.

46. Said E. Orientalism. St. Petersburg: Russian World Publishing House, 1995.

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and erroneous assumptions lead to programming a certain future.

Talal Asad presented the most comprehensive model of going beyond orientalism and overcoming the logic of reasoning within the initially set framework. In his logic, discussions about the correctness of the formulation of the subject of research-political Islam, Islamic fundamentalism, or reformist Salafism-have nothing to do with reality, since they incorrectly define the subject itself. He says that it is most productive to study Islam as a discursive tradition that itself addresses the concepts of the past and future, with a particular interest in Islamic practice in the present.47 Following the anthropological research logic, T. Asad notes that it is necessary to abandon the programmed discourses of "modernist" and "fundamentalist" Islam, and move on to the analysis of established practices of ordinary Muslims. In other words, each practice - whether it is Sudanese Sufi practices or the Muslim communities of France-needs its own unique approach, which cannot be placed in any conceptual scheme. T. Asad recognizes that the new concept of religion developed after the Protestant Reformation had some influence on discussions in the bosom of the Islamic tradition, for example, on the ratio of religious values to religious values. 48. However, the significance of this phenomenon should not be exaggerated, but rather previous Islamic experience should be taken into account. T. Asad's position on the artificiality of the concept of orthodoxy in Islam is also interesting. Orthodoxy is only an attitude of authority. "If Muslims have the ability to regulate, support, demand and establish correct practices, as well as exclude, condemn, undermine and change incorrect ones, then we can talk about orthodoxy."49
Another researcher, Brian Turner, refers to the sociology of Islam as the most appropriate model for overcoming orientalism. He criticizes not only Said's orientalism, but also the Weberian paradigm, which, in his opinion, caused the self-determination of the world.

47. Asad, T. (1986) "The Idea of an Anthropology of Islam", Occasional Papers Series. Center for Contemporary Arab Studies Georgetown University.

48. Mahmood, S., Asad, T. (1996) "Modern Power and the Reconfiguration of Religious Traditions", SEHR 5(1) [https://web.stanford.edu/group/SHR/5-1/text/asad.html, accessed on 21.01.2017].

49. Asad, T. "The Idea of an Antropology of Islam", p. 15.

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the emergence of the phenomenon of orientalism 50. Without going into details, it is worth noting that the main criticism boils down to the fact that M. Weber's theory laid discriminatory prerequisites in relation to non-Western cultures. B. Turner also insists on the need to abandon all kinds of generalizations and introduce artificial unproductive concepts, one of which he considers the concept of "Islamic civilization". At the same time, unlike T. Assad, it is much more important for him to link private moments with a broader social context.

* * *

The current political situation actualizes the problem of finding optimal concepts in Islamic studies. In a situation where there is a wide range of research objects, dictated by the breadth of the Islamic tradition itself, some of the most popular approaches are those that offer various generalizing schemes, typologies and classifications that allow us to cover a rich empirical material within a single study. One such example is the appeal to the concept of "Islamic reformation". For many reasons, it has become extremely popular both among specialists in Islam, who consider the problem of change in Muslim societies in the broadest sense of the word and even draw parallels with the European Reformation, and among Muslim intellectuals, who, largely relying on the experience of Muslim modernism in the late XIX-early XX century, speak about the need for reformation of Muslim societies. societies. First, the use of the concept of "Islamic reformation" seems to be quite instrumental and solves specific political tasks: it allows us to develop a program for liberalizing / modernizing / democratizing Islam, turning "bad Islam" into "good". Secondly, the identification of modern Islamic radical movements as Muslim reform movements supposedly makes possible a deeper understanding of their essence. Third, the use of the concept of " ip-

50. Turner, B.S. (2013) The Sociology of Islam: Collected Essays of Bryan S. Turner. Ashgate Publishing Company; Ragozina S. On the anti-orientalist sociology of Islam by Brian Turner. Gosudarstvo, religiya, tserkva v Rossii i za rubezhom [State, Religion, Church in Russia and Abroad]. 2015. N 1 (33) / pp. 297-310.

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the "Women's Reformation" is acceptable in the established orientalist paradigm. However, the lack of consideration of contextual factors in the use of the concept of "Islamic reformation" leads not only to erroneous conclusions on specific issues, but also to significant aberrations in the perception of Islam. Hence, the most effective and promising approach seems to be a more critical and careful use of the concept of the reformation, as well as a more contextually oriented approach, a vivid example of which is the anthropological approach of T. A. Tolstoy. Of Assad.

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