Mikhail Steckevich
The Oxford (Tractarian) Movement in the Context of Protestant-Catholic Conflict in Early Victorian England
Mikhail Steckevich-Associate Professor, Department of Philosophy of Religion and Religious Studies, Saint-Petersburg State University, Russia, msstets@yandex.ru
The article deals with the role of the Oxford movement in the development of conflict between Protestantism and Roman Catholicism in Early Victorian England. The Oxford (Tractarian) movement and some of its leaders, especially J. H. Newman, denied the Protestant character of the Church of England. This denial gave a new dimension to the conflict. The analysis of events, connected with the so called "papal aggression" - the restoration of the Roman Catholic hierarchy in England (1850) - shows that the mobilizing potential of anticatholicism was quite limited, notwithstanding the widespread idea that the Tractarians were "secret agents" of Rome.
Keywords: Protestantism, Roman Catholicism, anticatholicism, Early Victorian England, Church of England, Oxford movement, J.H. Newman, "papal aggression".
Historical context: Protestant-Catholic confrontation in England before the beginning of the 19th century
INTER-religious conflicts, as history shows, can be no less, and sometimes even more acute, than inter-religious conflicts. Like the latter, they are not limited to differences in beliefs, but also have political, cultural, and social dimensions.
These circumstances were fully manifested in the Protestant-Catholic conflict in England, dating back to the era of the Roman Catholic Church.-
page 201
formations of the XVI century. At this time, such events occurred as the restoration of Catholicism during the reign of Mary Tudor (1553-1558), accompanied by the execution of Protestants, the defeat of the Spanish "Invincible Armada" (1588), the disclosure of the "Gunpowder Plot" organized mainly by Catholics (1605), aimed at blowing up the Parliament building. Even then, in the most diverse strata of English society, there was an idea of the" omnipotence " of the pope, directing the activities of Catholic monarchs, the all-pervading influence of the Jesuits, the inability of English Catholics, due to their spiritual dependence on the Roman pontiff, to be loyal subjects of the monarch.
In the 17th and 18th centuries, the scale of the Protestant-Catholic conflict continued to be significant. In our opinion, without taking this confrontation into account, it is impossible to adequately understand such important events as the English Revolution of the mid - 17th century, the "Glorious Revolution" of 1688-1689, and the Jacobite movement of the late 17th and first half of the 18th centuries aimed at restoring the Stuart monarchs to the British throne. One of the most important factors that led to the emergence of a revolutionary situation in England at the turn of the 1630s - 1640s was the suspicion of "papist sympathies" of King Charles I. The "Glorious Revolution" was marked by the overthrow of the Catholic King James II, and the Jacobites were defeated mainly due to the fact that they were strongly associated with Catholicism. At the same time, along with the theological rejection of Catholicism as an "untrue" and "idolatrous" religion, which is characterized by a disregard for the Bible, there was also a stable association with despotism, while Protestantism was associated with freedom and prosperity.1
1. The process of formation and development of British anti-Catholicism, its analysis in foreign historiography are considered in the following articles: Stetskevich M. S. Protestantism, anti-Catholicism and British national identity of the New Time / / Christian culture on the threshold of the third millennium. Proceedings of the scientific conference, June 12-14, 2000. Series "Symposium", issue 5. St. Petersburg: St. Petersburg Philosophical Society, 2000. pp. 35-41; Stetskevich M. S. Anti-Catholicism and British national identity in the New Time / / Empires and imperialism of the new and modern times. St. Petersburg: Historical Faculty, 2009-p. 178-183; Stetskevich M. S. Anti-Catholicism and British national identity: problems of historiography//Proceedings of the Department of Modern and Contemporary History of St. Petersburg State University. N7-2011. St. Petersburg: RKHGA Publishing House, pp. 156-164.
page 202
Contemporary researcher L. Colley, in her widely acclaimed work "The British: Inventing the Nation", assigns Protestantism and its derivative anti-Catholicism an essential place in the process of forming national identity. In her opinion, the British realized themselves as a nation in the process of reacting to the "other". This" other " was Catholicism, and its most striking expression was Catholic France, with which in the eighteenth century it was associated. Britain fought almost continuous wars.2
However, after the" Lord Gordon mutiny "(1780) - the largest anti - Catholic riots in London, caused by the repeal of certain laws that severely restricted the rights of a few English Catholics-the attitude towards" popery " began to gradually soften. This was due to a number of circumstances: the spread in English society, especially among the educated classes, of one of the fundamental ideas of the Enlightenment - freedom of religion; the final extinction of the Jacobite movement; the development, under the influence of the events of the French Revolution of the XVIII century, of the idea that the greatest threat to British freedoms is "Godlessness", and not Catholicism.
The "emancipation of Catholics" that took place in 1829, which meant granting them electoral rights, was the result of many years of parliamentary discussions, accompanied by numerous meetings and petitions to Parliament (according to the data provided by T. S. Solovyova, the number of petitions against emancipation exceeded the number of appeals in favor of Catholics by at least ten times 3), but did not lead to riots even remotely resembling "Lord Gordon's mutiny".
In the next three decades, anti-Catholic sentiment not only did not become a thing of the past, but revived again. A modern researcher, J. R. R. Tolkien. Wolf believes that in the fifty years that followed emancipation, antagonism toward Catholics was much more pronounced than it was in the past.
2. Colley, L. (1994) Britons: Forging the Nation, 1707-1837, pp. 3 - 54. London: Pimlico.
3. Solov'eva T. S. Religious policy of liberal Tories in England (20s of the XIX century). Moscow: MSU Publishing House, 2000. pp. 170-171.
page 203
in the 1820s, 4 he considers the reaction of British society to the "papal aggression" - the restoration of the Catholic hierarchy in England by Pope Pius IX in 1850 - to be the largest manifestation of anti-Catholicism since the "Lord Gordon rebellion"5. Analyzing the reasons for the activation of anti-Catholic sentiment, U. Rolle draws attention to four things. First, there was an increase in Irish, and therefore almost exclusively Catholic, immigration to England, which led to a multiple increase in the number of adherents of Catholicism - from 30,000 at the turn of the XVIII-XIX centuries to 750,000 in 1851. Secondly, the Tory (Conservative) party, in its polemic with the Whig (Liberal) party, which was often supported by Irish Catholic members of Parliament, began to resort to anti-Catholic rhetoric, repeating the old theses about the "inseparability of Catholicism from despotic rule" and about the" dual citizenship of Catholics", which meant that they could not be loyal to the law. in relation to the British monarch due to spiritual submission to the Pope. Third, the position of English Catholicism was significantly strengthened: in 1848, in the London borough of Southwark, the first Catholic cathedral built in England after the Reformation was inaugurated; its builder was the outstanding architect O. Pugin - one of many Englishmen who converted to Catholicism in the 1830s-1840s. Parish churches were also actively built. Monastic orders began to appear in England, including those that were not previously present in the country. Finally, as a fourth circumstance, Rolle cites the lack of unity among English Protestants, which, in fact, always took place, since other denominations competed with the state Church of England (Baptists, Congregationalists, Presbyterians, Quakers), called dissenters (from the English dissent - disagreement). However, in the 1830s and 1840s, the Church of England itself, which until then had looked relatively unified, became the scene of intense internal strife.6
4. Wolffe, J. (1991) The Protestant Crusade in Great Britain, 1829-1860, p. 2. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
5. Ibid., p. 2.
6. Ralls, W. (1974) "The Papal Aggression of 1850: A Study in Victorian Anti-Catholicism", Church History 34 (2): 244 - 247.
page 204
It should be noted that various trends within the Church of England have existed almost always. Their appearance was programmed by the compromise nature of the English Reformation and Anglican teaching, the official expression of which was the "39 Articles" (1563), which combined both provisions on the authority of the "visible church" in doctrinal matters, and formulations about the presence in Holy Scripture of everything necessary for salvation. Accordingly, there was a current in Anglicanism called the "High Church", which focused on the historical character of the Anglican episcopate, the doctrine of apostolic succession as the basis of the Church of England's claims to the status of a branch of the Universal Catholic Church. High churchmen, rejecting the Protestant principle of "Scripture only", sought to rely in its interpretation on the authority of catechisms, creeds, and the Church fathers. They emphasized the meaning of "good works" and emphasized the significance of the sacraments of baptism and communion as channels for transmitting grace.
The second major trend in Anglicanism was, to use the terminology of later times, the "Low Church" (Low Church). In the XVIII-early XIX centuries. This concept was used primarily to characterize "latitu-dinarianism" (from the English latitude - latitude). In the opinion of the Latitu-Denarians, who were convinced of the absolute sufficiency of the Bible as a source of doctrine, questions of doctrine, liturgical practice, and especially church organization were of secondary importance. While they recognized the Anglican formula of faith, they believed that a very broad interpretation of it was possible. Later, in the 19th century, the term " Low Church "came to be understood by supporters of the evangelical movement that emerged in the 1740s, emphasizing the need for personal" conversion "-the emotional acceptance of Christ as a personal savior - and the" holy life "that followed the"conversion".
For all the differences between the "High" and "Low" churches, including evangelicals, there was, as P. Avis notes, a general consensus.7 It was based on the recognition of the importance of preserving the state, "established" status of the Cer-
7. Avis, P. (1986) "The Tractarian Challenge to consensus and the Identity of Anglicanism", Kings Theological Review 9 (1): 14.
page 205
queenie of England, its Protestant character. Characteristically, Archdeacon Ch. did not doubt the latter. Daubeni, whose voluminous treatise Guide to the Church, first published in 1798, is considered one of the most complete expressions of high church views. Daubeny stated emphatically that since the Reformation, the Church of England has been the "bulwark of Protestantism." 8
The Oxford Movement in the Context of the Protestant-Catholic Conflict (1830s-1840s)
The consensus described above was seriously undermined by the movement that began in 1833, usually referred to as the Oxford movement. Its leaders-J. G. Newman (1801-1890), J. Keeble (1792-1866), R. H. Froude (1803-1836), and E. B. Pusey (1800 - 1882) - were theological priests associated with the University of Oxford. Another name of the movement is Tractarian, associated with the most famous publication - "Treatises for the present time", published from 1833 to 1841.The Oxford movement is recognized by the overwhelming majority of researchers as the largest phenomenon in the history of Anglicanism of the XIX century, and is sometimes called among the most important events in the history of Western Christianity of the past two centuries. The bibliography of the movement is huge and includes at least one and a half thousand special studies published in the XX-XXI centuries.9 However, the attention of Tractarian historians has focused primarily on its theological aspects, on the figures of leaders, and above all on J. G. Newman. The perception of the Oxford Movement's ideas by Victorian public opinion remains much less researched. On the other hand, in numerous works on the history of Victorian anti-Catholicism (one can note first of all the research of J. R. R. Tolkien). Best, E. Norman, J. Wolf 10) " to the Tractarian factor-
8. Daubeny, C. (1804) A Guide to the Church, p. 152. London: J. C. and J. Rivington.
9. Crumb, L. (2009) The Oxford Movement and its Leaders: A Bibliography of Secondary and Lesser Primary Sources. Lanham: The Scarecrow Press. The most important and interesting works are analyzed in the article: Stetskevich M. S. Modern problems of historiography of the Oxford movement / / Religion in the changing world. St. Petersburg: SPbU Publishing House, 2012, pp. 228-244. Best, G. F.A. (1967) "Popular Protestantism in Victorian Britain", in Ideas and Institutions of Victorian Britain: Essays in honour of George Kitson Clark, pp. 115 - 142.
page 206
torah " is rarely given special attention (with the exception of D. Paz's book 11). Therefore, the purpose of this article is to analyze the influence of Tractarianism on the development of the Protestant-Catholic conflict in the 1830s-1850s. By focusing on the socio-political rather than theological aspects of the conflict (the debate over whether the Church of England is Protestant and /or Catholic dates back at least to the end of the sixteenth century), we have tried to use mainly those sources that illustrate the close relationship that existed at that time "religious" and "political". Therefore, the press, pamphlet literature, and parliamentary speeches are of primary interest in this case.
The first Treatises for the Present, published in the autumn of 1833, developed the idea of apostolic succession. It was previously shared by many high church members, but was considered primarily as a means of ensuring proper church order. The Oxfordians, however, presented apostolic succession as the most important foundation for the authority of the priest, contrasting it with the prevailing ideas in society and the Church of England about the clergy as performing primarily useful functions, ensuring the maintenance of social stability. Equally important was defending the need for faith in the "one, holy, Catholic and apostolic Church" (Tractate 2), 12 of which the" pure " branch, as specified in Tractate 5, is the Church of England.13 Thus, Tractarians ignored from the very beginning the fact that in public opinion "Catholic" usually meant the Roman Church.
London: G. Bell; Norman, E. R. (1968) Anti-Catholicism in Victorian England. London: George Allen & Unwin; Wolffe, J. (1991) The Protestant Crusade in Great Britain, 1829-1860.
11. Paz, D. G. (1992) Popular Anti-Catholicism in Mid-Victorian Britain. Stanford: Stanford University Press.
12. Tract N2. The Catholic Church [http://anglicanhist0ry.org/tracts/tract2.html, accessed on 04.02.2013].
13. Tract N5. A Short Address to His Brethren on the Nature and Constitution of The Church of Christ, and of the Branch of It Established in England [http://anglicanhistory.0rg/tracts/tract5.html, accessed on 04.02.2013].
page 207
While the treatises, which were also published in very small editions, did not initially arouse much interest among the general public, the evangelical publications immediately responded to their publication. The author of an article in the newspaper "Record" already in December 1833 noted that if he had not seen the treatises with his own eyes, he would never have been able to assume "the writing of such texts... a Protestant priest. " 14 The Christian Observer was even more strident when it drew attention to two forces undermining the Church of England. The first of these is dissenters who "joined forces with non-believers, radicals, and Socinians." 15 The second force is represented by "members of the Oxford-based society, whose members, claiming to be the most orthodox members of the Church, began to distribute publications throughout the country that surpass even the writings of Lord and Satchverell in fanaticism and popery."16 In this regard, the magazine set out to strengthen the Church of England as "the greatest measure of the Church of England". based on the Scriptures of all the existing churches, serving as the most important tool in the hands of God to ensure the spiritual well-being of our country. " 17
Then, in 1834-1835, criticism of the Oxford movement subsided somewhat. Evangelicals, Tractarians, and representatives of the traditional high-church party joined forces to oppose the plans for admission of dissenters to Oxford University and against the refusal to sign the "39 articles" when enrolling students. The last example of the interaction between evangelicals and Tractarians, who, despite all their differences, were united by the desire to strictly follow dogma, take religious issues seriously, and lead a "holy life" (although differently understood), was their joint confrontation in 1836 (for-
14. The Record. 5.12.1833.
15. Socinianism-a radical Protestant Antitrinitarian movement that emerged in the second half of the 16th century, denying original sin and the divinity of Christ.
16. William Laud (1573-1645), Archbishop of Canterbury, a High Church believer who considered the Church of England Catholic, although not subordinate to the Pope. Henry Satchverell (1674-1724) was a highly ecclesiastical preacher known for his criticism of dissenters.
17. The Christian Observer (1833) Vol. 33: III-IV.
page 208
ultimately unsuccessful) to the appointment of the liberal theologian R. Hampden as the Queen's Professor of Divinity at Oxford University. But already in the same year, 1836, the treatise of the famous evangelical E. Bickersteth "Remarks on the promotion of Papism" appeared. Naming the reasons for the growing influence of Roman Catholicism in England, the author notes as one of them "the refusal to consider the Bible as the only source of divine truth", objecting to the appearance in universities of "a group of respected, educated and sincere people whose texts indicate a desire to move away from Protestantism and approach Papal doctrine". True, Bickersteth points out, the authors of Treatises for the Present do not share the "most glaring errors of papism" (papal infallibility, the veneration of images), but their fascination with the "fathers of the church" and their rejection of the doctrine of justification by faith open the way for it.18
Naturally, a fair question arises about the validity of such reproaches. Today, no serious researcher shares the very popular view of Tractarianism in early historiography, according to which it originated not in Oxford, but in Rome, where J. G. Newman and R. H. Froude, who were making a trip to the Mediterranean in 1833, met the future head of the Catholic hierarchy in England. All members of the movement, including those who remained loyal to the Church of England, masked their true views and initially sought to bring it under the authority of the Pope.19 But at the same time, we can agree with David Bowen, who sees the Oxford movement as an attempt at a "clerical counter-reformation" of the Church of England.20 Indeed, already in the "Treatises for the present time", written and published in 1833-1834. (the time when they were written and published with the greatest intensity), you can find not only statements about the "Catholicity" of the Church of England, about the authority of the "visible church", which in general did not go beyond the scope of the "Catholic Church".
18. Bickersteth, E. (1836) Remarks on the Progress of Popery, pp. 43 - 44. London: Published by L. and G. Seeley.
19. Walsh, W. (1900) The History of the Romeward Movement in the Church of England, 1833 - 1864, pp. VII-IX, 7 - 21. London: James Nisbet and Co, limited.
20. Bowen, D. (1968) The Idea of the Victorian Church, p. 44. Montreal: McGill University Press.
page 209
It is also about the need to rely on the authority of the Ancient Church in interpreting the Holy Scriptures (Treatise N1521), which will later become one of the central ideas of the Oxford movement, as well as about the desirability of a "second Reformation". According to the Tractarians, it was necessary to restore the ideals of the Ancient Church and purge new, now Protestant, layers (tractate N4122). The idea of a "middle way" (Via media)was actively developed Of the Church of England, lying "between the so-called reformers and the Roman Catholics" (Tracts No. 38, 4123). At the same time, we analyzed the "negative tendencies in Protestantism", which consisted in the absolutization of Scripture (tractate N4524).
In many treatises (N 41, 71, 79) there was also a criticism of "papist errors". However, it also expressed regret that union with Rome was impossible without its "purification." 25 Newman, in his Lectures on Justification by Faith (1838), and Pusey, in his Treatise on Baptism (Treatise No. 67), developed views that, at least to evangelicals, seemed papist. Regarding the latter, the Christian Observer noted that its author should have lectured at the Vatican, not at Oxford.26
For the time being, Oxford's treatises and ideas were known almost exclusively in ecclesiastical circles. The situation changed with the publication in 1838 of the first volumes of The Remains of R. H. Froude , one of the founders of the Oxford movement, who died in 1836. Newman and Keeble, who prepared the publication, were well aware of its importance.
21. Tract N15. On the Apostolical Succession in the English Church [http://www.anglicanhistory.org/tracts/tract15.html, accessed on 04.02.2013].
22. Tract N41. Via Media. No II [http://anglicanhistory.org/tracts/tract41.html, accessed on 04.02.2013].
23. Tract N38. Via Media. No. I [http://anglicanhistory.org/tracts/tract38.html, accessed on 04.02.2013].
24. Tract N 45. The Grounds of our Faith [http://anglicanhistory.org/tracts/tract45.html, accessed on 04.02.2013].
25. Tract N20. The Visible Church. No III [http://anglicanhistory.org/tracts/tract20. html, accessed on 04.02.2013].
26. См.: Toon, P. (1979) Evangelical Theology, 1833 - 1856. A Response to Tractarianism, p. 32. London: Marshall, Morgan and Scott.
page 210
possible consequences 27. But the desire to introduce the "saint" (as Newman called Froude in private correspondence) and win new supporters of "Catholicism" won out, and in 1838 the first two volumes of the Heritage were published. They contain evidence of Froude's personal spiritual experiences: grueling fasts and prayers, refusing to sleep, or sleeping on the floor. Such methods of "fighting the passions" are more typical of Roman Catholics than Protestants, including Anglicans. However, this did not provoke a serious public reaction, but rather Frood's unequivocal condemnation of the Reformation. It is enough to quote the following statements:"every day I am becoming less and less loyal to the Reformation "28;" I really hate the Reformation and the reformers more and more "29;" The Reformation was a poorly fused fracture that needs to be repeated anew in order to correct the current situation"30. It should be noted that in Heritage there are quite sharp attacks against Roman Catholicism31, and quite typical of the ideology of the Oxford movement expressions: "we are Catholics without papism, and people of the Church of England without Protestantism" 32. However, neither the preface to the first volume of The Heritage, written by Newman, in which Froude was described as a" Christian warrior "and a priest" not of any church established by human efforts, but of the one holy Catholic Church "that exists both in England and elsewhere, 33 nor the attempt, by means of an editorial commentary, to make a statement to the editor. To clarify the difference between the author's anti-Protestantism and Roman Catholicism34 could not smooth out the negative impression of the book that has developed both in the Church of England and in society as a whole.
27. Подробнее см.: Brendon, P. (1972) "Newman, Keble and Froudes 'Remains'", The Journal of Ecclesiastical History 87: 697 - 716.
28. Remains of the late Reverend Richard Hurrell Froude, p. 336. London: Printed for J. C. and J. Rivington, 1838. Vol. 1.
29. Remains of the late Reverend Richard Hurrell Froude, p. 336. London: Printed for J. C. and J. Rivington, 1838. Vol. 1.
30. Ibid., p. 433.
31. See for example: Ibid., pp. 293-294, 434.
32. Ibid., p. 404.
33. Ibid., p. XIV, XVII.
34. Ibid., p. 347.
page 211
The sharp reaction of the evangelical magazine The Christian Observer, which declared the need to "re-start the battle for the Reformation" 35, was predictable. Bishop J. Sumner of Chester (later Archbishop of Canterbury), who was close to the Evangelicals, also drew attention to the" Legacy "and in a message to the clergy of his diocese declared that" the foundations of our Protestant Church are being undermined by people who are within its walls. " 36 Representatives of the high church party also expressed dissatisfaction. One of them, E. Chertoy, even stated about some of Froude's expressions that he would rather lose his right hand than see them printed.37 A major blow was dealt directly at Oxford when, on May 20, 1838, university professor and clergyman J. R. R. Tolkien wrote a letter to him. Fasse, also a representative of the "High Church", delivered a sermon in which he expressed indignation that the authors of the" Treatises "and" Heritage " under the guise of Catholic doctrines offer Roman Catholic ones. "Who would dare call them loyal and consistent members of the Church of England? Who can doubt that their opinions are developing in the direction of papism? " said Fasse, expressing satisfaction only that such views do not extend beyond the narrow circle of educated people. 38
The latter opinion was no longer true. The publication of Heritage brought Tractarian literature to the attention of the largest literary and socio-political journals of the time, The Edinburgh Review and The Quarterly Review. The former, expressing a Whig-liberal point of view, condescendingly ridiculed Froude's spiritual quest, noted the similarity of his ideas with Roman Catholics, concluding the article with a panegyric on the Reformation and stating the fact that Protestantism was invincible in England, since "giants were not yet born who could crush it" 39. Conservative The Quarterly Review
35. The Christian Observer (1838) Vol. 38: 507.
36. Sumner, J. B. (1838) A Charge Delivered to the Clergy of the Diocese of Chester, p. 2. London, J. Hatchard and Son.
37. См.: Brendon, P. (1974) Hurrell Froude and the Oxford Movement, p. 180. London: Paul Elek.
38. Fausset, G. (1838) The Revival of Popery, pp. 14 - 15. Oxford: University Press.
39. The Edinburgh Review. (July 1838) Vol. 67: 529 - 534.
page 212
He wrote about the Tractarians with considerable sympathy, noting their loyalty to "high principles", agreeing with their definition of the Church of England as "the true branch of the Catholic Church" and even defending them against attacks by ultra-Protestants. However, The Quarterly Review could not agree with Froude's criticism of the Reformation, seeing its achievement both in the "cleansing" of papism and in the establishment of an independent national church. 40
The question of Froude's" Legacy "was even raised in one of the parliamentary debates, on July 30, 1838, the Whig orator Lord Morpeth quoted the most critical passages of Froude's work against the Reformation, calling Newman the leader of the" new school " that was becoming increasingly widespread in Oxford. An attempt by Gladstone, who was still gaining popularity as a politician, who sympathized with the Tractarians and shared many of their ideas, to strongly reject the thesis of the pro-Roman orientation of the Oxfordians did not look very convincing.41
Newman's biographer Sh. Gilley rightly points out that anti-Protestantism was the "Achilles' heel of the Oxford movement", 42 and in the ordinary sense, any anti-Protestant automatically became a Roman Catholic. 43 In the late 1830s and first half of the 1840s, the development of the Tractarian movement was accompanied by a growing series of conflicts, in which questions about "Popery" and Protestantism invariably occupied a central place. For example, when in October 1838, the priest C. Golightly created a committee for the construction of a monument in Oxford to the "martyrs of the Reformation" - Archbishop T. Cranmer Bishops H. To Latimer and N. Ridley, who were burned in Oxford in 1555, during the reign of Queen Mary Tudor, Keeble, Newman and Pusey refused to donate money for the construction of a memorial. Pusey immediately perceived the memorial project as "a blow directed against us."44 Averstone emphasizes that the proposals for the construction of the memorial are based on the following principles:
40. The Quarterly Review. (1839) Vol. 1. 63: 531 - 571.
41. The Mirror of Parliament. (1838) Session 1837 - 1838. Vol. 7: 5950 - 5951.
42. Gilley, S. (1990) Newman and His Age, p. 151. London: Darton, Longman and Todd Ltd.
43. Ibid., p. 179.
44. Liddon, H.P. (1894) Life of Edward Bouverie Pusey. Vol. 2, p. 64. London: Longmans, Green and Co.
page 213
the construction of the monument dates back to the end of the XVIII century, and its construction was not so much anti-tractarian as anti-Catholic. 45 However, since the construction of the monument (architect J. It was not completed until 1843 that opponents of the Tractarians considered their willingness to support the construction of the memorial as a kind of test of loyalty to Protestantism and the Reformation, which the participants of the movement, ignoring the request of the Oxford Bishop R. Bagot, did not pass.46
Concerns about the Tractarians ' pro-Roman sympathies were at least partially justified. If Keeble and Pusey, despite their efforts to build on the authority of the Ancient Church, did not question the need for their continued stay in the Church of England, then Newman, as well as F. Oakley (1802-1880), who joined the movement in the late 1830s, and OUD. Ward (1812-1882) gradually moved towards Rome. The Swedish researcher R. Imberg seriously questioned Newman's claims about his lack of "thoughts about Rome" until the summer of 1839, which he cited in his autobiography " Apology of my Life "(1864). In a comparative analysis of the original and later editions of Newman's Tracts for the Present, Imberg found a significant softening of criticism of the Roman Catholic Church in the 1837 reprints, and especially in the 1840 editions.47 Oakley and Ward published a series of articles in the British Critic, which Newman edited from 1838 to 1841, arguing for the need to "deprotestanize" the Church of England.
In order to resolve his own lingering doubts about the "Catholicity" of the Church of England and to prevent himself and some of his followers from crossing the line that separated it from the Roman Catholic Church, in February 1841 Newman published Treatise No. 90, which was to be the last in a series that began in 1833. The analysis of the Treatise N 90 is devoted to-
45. Atherstone, A. (2003) "The Martyrs Memorial at Oxford", The Journal of Ecclesiastical History 54 (2): 278 - 285.
46. For more information, see Liddon, P. (1894) Life of Edward Bouverie Pusey, pp. 52-80.
47. Imberg, R. (1987) In Quest for Authority: The "Tracts for the Times" and the Development of Tractarian Leaders, pp. 53, 90 - 96. Lund: University Press.
page 214
a huge amount of research has been done 48. His main ideas were as follows. In the preface, Newman states that although the "39 Articles" are "a product of a non-Catholic era, "they can be signed by" a Catholic at heart and by conviction. " 49 After analyzing 14 of the 39 articles in great detail, Newman tried to distinguish between "Roman", "Catholic" and "Roman Catholic" dogmas. Only the former, the Oxford theologian emphasized, are unequivocally condemned in the "39 articles". By the latter, he meant not only the provisions formulated by the Ancient undivided Church, but even many decisions of the Council of Trent (1545-1563). This logic leads Newman to the following conclusion: the doctrine of purgatory, invocation of saints, veneration of images and relics, which is condemned by Article 22, is not denied in principle, but only to the extent that it is part of "Roman" practice, which is not confirmed by official ecclesiastical decisions.50 Concerning the question of the denial in article 21 of the infallibility of Ecumenical Councils, Newman extended it mainly to the fact that they were convened by State authorities.51
After touching on such an important issue as the denial of papal authority over England (article 38), Newman drew a parallel between papal and royal supremacy over the church, denying them both divine authority. "We were under the authority of the pope before and were subordinate to him, but now we are under the authority of the king and are subordinate to him," Newman summed up 52. In the final part of the treatise, Newman, strongly opposing himself to Protestantism, defended the legitimacy of the "Catholic" interpretation of the "39 Articles", motivating this by carrying out the following tasks:
48. Note the article by P. Nockles (P. (199 1) "Oxford, Tract 90 and the Bishops", in Nicholls, D. and Kerr, F. (eds) John Henry Newman: Reason, Rhetorical and Romanticism. The Bristol Press) and a dissertation by F. Курноу (Curnow, K. F. (2010) A Rereading of Tract go. A Thesis submitted ... for the degree of Doctor of Theology. Melbourne College of Divinity).
49. Tract Ngo. Remarks on Certain Passages in the Thirty-Nine Articles. [http://anglicanhistory.org/tracts/tract90/introduction.html, accessed on 04.02.2013].
50. http://anglicanhistory.org/tracts/tract90/section6.html, accessed on 04.02.2013.
51. http://anglicanhistory.org/tracts/tract90/section5.html, accessed on 04.02.2013.
52. http://anglicanhistory.org/tracts/tract90/section12.html, accessed on 04.02.2013.
page 215
obligations only to the "Catholic Church", but not to their authors 53.
The reaction to Tract No. 90 was immediate. In 1856, the church historian J. R. R. Tolkien wrote: Marsden wrote: "No pamphlet, with the possible exception of Burke's Reflections on the Revolution in France, has ever produced a sensation of such magnitude, depth, and force."54. Suffice it to say that in 1841 alone, 12,500 copies of the treatise were published, 55 while other "Treatises for the Present" were published in a circulation of no more than a thousand copies and were distributed very slowly. In the heated theological debate that ensued, opponents of the Oxford movement leader, including a significant majority of high church members, reproached him for selectivity in interpreting articles, using such phrases as "a product of a non-Catholic era" and "ambiguity of wording" in relation to them, considering the very distinction between "Roman" and "Roman Catholic"unsatisfactory dogmas 56. Throughout 1841 and 1842, the bishops of the Church of England were very critical of Tractate N90, and some of them of Tractarianism in general, but generally avoided direct accusations of "popery"57.
Much harsher was the reaction of the overwhelming part of English society, which was not interested in theological nuances, but in the general meaning and direction of the Oxford movement. The Morning Chronicle ironically noted: "According to the authors of the Treatises, we all turn out to be real papists, although we don't know it."58. In Parliament, Lord Morpeth again took the floor, accusing the Tractarians of "constantly undermining the obvious Protestant character of the Church of England." 59 In a petition from residents of Blackburn to the Bishop of Cheshire os-
53. http://anglicanhistory.org/tracts/tract90/conclusion. html, accessed on 04.02.2013.
54. Marsden, J. B. (1856) History of Christian Churches and Sects. Vol. 1, p. 40. London: Richard Bentley.
55. Brown, S. (2001) National Churches of England, Ireland, Scotland, 1801 - 1846, p. 291. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
56. For more information, see Nockles, P. (1991) Oxford, Tract go and the Bishops, pp. 44-47.
57. The Judgment of the Bishops Upon Tractarian Theology. Oxford: J. Vincent, 1845.
58. The Morning Chronicle (11.03. 1841).
59. The Mirror of Parliament. Session of 1841. (1841) Vol. 1, p. 512. London: Longman.
page 216
Anglican priests were attacked for " breaking down the walls they are supposed to defend and trying to return the country to the state of slavery that our ancestors could no longer tolerate."60
Oxford University, where Tractarians were not the majority, did not want to present itself as a patron of "papism". On April 15, 1841, the heads of the colleges issued a proclamation condemning Tract No. 90, and the publication of the Tracts was stopped. Newman first retired to the village of Littlemore near Oxford, then resigned his duties as an Anglican priest, and in 1845 was accepted into the Roman Catholic Church. He was followed by Ward, Oakley, and several other priests. However, the movement in which Pusey was promoted to the role of the leading authority, and therefore the name "Puseyites" was finally consolidated for its participants, did not stop, although in fact it ceased to be both "Oxford" and "Tractarian".
It is clear that the rejection of the movement both in church circles and to a much greater extent in English society as a whole was due to its open anti - Protestant nature and the "Papist bias" of at least some of its leaders. However, paradoxically, this gave Tractarianism a chance to survive, although, of course, in slightly modified forms. To do this, it was necessary, first of all, to soften the anti-Protestant rhetoric, move from theological discussions to practical activities, focusing on the sacralization of Anglican worship. It is noteworthy that the Tory magazine The Quarterly Review, while calling both the condemnation of the Reformation and Newman's movement in the "papist direction" categorically unacceptable, at the same time paid tribute to Tractarians for their piety, theological knowledge, and emphasis on the spiritual aspects of priestly mission, without even objecting to the name of the Church of England "Catholic" and expressing hope for the future. that soon all that will remain of "Tractarian agitation" is a commitment to the Anglican dogma as expressed in the "39 articles." 61
60. The Bishop of Chester and the "Tracts for the Times", The Churchman. Vol. 8: 676.
61. The Quarterly Review (1843) Vol. 72: 236 - 238.
page 217
In this respect, Grizzly's pamphlets published in the mid-1840s strongly dissociated himself from Newman and the "pro-Roman tendency", 62 spoke positively about the English Reformation, 63 and even, although rather by default, recognized the Church of England (often using the expression "English church").) protestant 64. Grizzly's most important task was to make the Church of England in practice what it is in theory - that is, a branch of the Universal Catholic Church, supporting its teaching and discipline.65
The Tractarian factor in the events of the "Papal aggression "(1850s)
However, the Puseyites did not quickly dispel the notion that they were "Popish" and therefore "un-English," which was a serious reproach at the time. This can be judged on the basis of the public reaction to the already mentioned "papal aggression" and the circumstances that accompanied it. The diplomatic and political aspects of the restoration of the Roman Catholic hierarchy in England in the autumn of 1850, which was abolished during the Reformation of the sixteenth century, have been studied in sufficient detail, including in Russian historiography. 66 The very decision of Pope Pius IX to restore the hierarchy was neither spontaneous nor completely unexpected for the English liberal (Whig) government, which was headed by In 1846-1852, he was appointed as Lord J. R. R. Tolkien. However, the British cabinet did not give direct sanction to this measure.67 However, the triumphal tone and some expressions of papal bull-
62. Gresley, W (1846) The Real Danger of the Church of England, p. 5. London: James Burns; Gresley, W. (1846) A Second Statement of the Real Danger of the Church of England, pp. 5 - 6. London: James Burns.
63. Gresley, W (1844) Anglo-Catholicism, pp. 74 - 90. London: James Burns.
64. Ibid, pp. 84 - 85.
65. Gresley, W. (1846) A Second Statement, pp. 69 - 70.
66. См. например: Ralls, W. Op. cit.; Conacher, J. B. (1959) "The Politics of the 'Papal Aggression' Crisis, 1850 - 1851", Canadian Catholic Historical Association .Report Vol. 26: 13-27; Vorobyeva V. A. The conflict between Great Britain and the Roman See in 1850-1851: "Papal aggression"//Alpha and Omega. 2000. N4 (26). pp. 319-338.
67. For more information, see: Vorobyova V. A. Decree, Op. pp. 326-327.
page 218
The letters of September 29, as well as the subsequent pastoral message of the new Primate of the English Catholic Church, Archbishop N. Wiseman of Westminster, caused outrage in the English press. The papal bull referred to the restoration of "full apostolic authority in the Kingdom of England... hierarchies of bishops who receive titles in accordance with the dioceses established by this epistle." At the same time, all previously issued orders related to the management of the "English Church"were canceled.68 If desired, this could be interpreted as the abolition of all structures of the Church of England, called in the bull "the Anglican schism of the XVI century" 69.
Wiseman's message, along with a discussion about the country's "greatest blessing" to take its rightful place among other Catholic countries, and the "completion of a great work", included the following words: "We govern and will continue to govern the counties of Middlesex, Hertford and Essex... Surrey, Sussex, Kent..."70. After the English newspapers interpreted these statements as a claim to sovereignty over the country, Queen Victoria uttered her famous, though probably apocryphal, phrase:" Am I the Queen of England or not? " 71.
Throughout the end of 1850 and the beginning of 1851, English newspapers and magazines actively reproduced traditional arguments about the ongoing papal encroachments on traditional British freedoms, inextricably linked with Protestantism. 72 On November 5, the day of the discovery of the "Gunpowder Plot", anti - Catholic demonstrations were more powerful than usual, and images of Pius IX and the new Archbishop of Westminster were thrown into the fire.. A few days later, a letter from Prime Minister John Kerry was published. To Bishop E. Maltby of Durham. In it, the head of the Cabinet agreed with Bishop Nebe's assessment. The Roman Catholic Question: A Copious Series of Important Documents, of Permanent Historical Interest, on the Re-Establishment of Catholic Hierarchy in England (1851), pp. 2-4. London: James Gilbert.
69. Ibid, p. 4.
70. Ibid., pp. 4 - 6.
71. См.: Norman, E. R. Anti-Catholicism in Victorian England, p. 56.
72. См.: Wheeler, M. (2006) The Old Enemies: Catholic and Protestant in Nineteenth-Century English Culture, pp. 8 - 23. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
page 219
He called the pope's actions an encroachment on "the royal supremacy, the rights of our bishops and clergy, and the spiritual independence of the nation." Russell expressed confidence that since " England... If it has long enjoyed Protestant freedoms", then all attempts to "impose a foreign yoke on our way of thinking and conscience", to restrict civil, political and religious rights are obviously unsuccessful. Much more significant is the internal threat posed by "unworthy sons of the Church of England", who subscribe to the "39 articles" but actually violate them, calling for the veneration of saints, secret confession, and affirming the idea of "the infallibility of the church"73. The Puzeites were not named, but they were undoubtedly the main ones. about them.
It is interesting that throughout his political career, Russell advocated the expansion of religious freedoms, and in the 1820s actively supported the emancipation of Catholics. The very fact of "papal aggression" did not particularly alarm him. He wrote frankly to Queen Victoria that restoring the hierarchy "is not one of those issues that pose a threat." The real danger, according to Russell, is "the growing Roman Catholic trend within the Church of England." 74
In publishing the letter to the Bishop of Durham, Russell had a variety of goals, including intercepting the anti-Catholic slogans commonly used by the Tories, and strengthening the position of his cabinet. But the main target was undoubtedly the Tractarians, for whom Russell had long had a strong dislike. The reason was, first of all, his own, not very clear, but, no doubt, Protestant religious beliefs. There was another reason for dislike. Russell always considered the optimal situation of complete state control over the Church of England. On the contrary, one of the most important ideas of the Oxford movement, which was not lost even after Newman's departure to the bosom of the Roman Church, was the idea of the Church of England gaining greater spiritual independence
73. The text of Russell's letter is reproduced in The Roman Catholic Question, p. 8.
74. Benson, C. and Esher, V. (eds) (1908) The Letters of Queen Victoria. Vol 2, pp. 272 - 273. London: John Murray.
page 220
from the state. It was also accepted by a significant part of the traditional adherents of the High Church, which was manifested in the Gorham case (1847-1850), which had a significant public resonance.
To the Priest J. R. R. Tolkien. Gorham, who denied baptismal regeneration, was refused a vacant parish in his diocese by Bishop G. Phillpots of Exeter, who was known for his highly ecclesiastical views. Gorham appealed to the state court, the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council, which decided the case in his favor. For high churchmen and Tractarians, the very fact that a secular body decided on the degree of orthodoxy of religious views was unacceptable. Russell, on the other hand, considered their protests an unacceptable encroachment on the royal supremacy over the Church of England.75
As a result, Russell concluded that the time had come "to do a good job of separating Protestantism from Tractarianism and presenting the latter as Roman Catholicism in disguise." 76 In another private letter, the Prime Minister was even more specific: "I will be sorry if the Tractarians leave the Church of England, but if that is the price of preserving its Protestant character, then let it be paid... I prefer a Roman Catholic enemy to a Tractarian spy. " 77
Shortly after the publication of the letter to the Bishop of Durham, Russell remarked to a member of his cabinet:: "I have done enough to save England from this (Tractarian ) threat, the people will do the rest." 78 Indeed, pamphlets began to appear in which the Puzeites were called the main culprits of "papal aggression", "who opened the gates to the enemy of truth and freedom" - "papism" 79. About Pusey himself, the most incredible rumors were spread: for example, it was said that he secretly
75. См.: Machin, G. I.T. (1974) "Lord John Russell and the Prelude to The Ecclesiastical Titles Bill, 1846 - 51", The Journal of Ecclesiastical History 25 (3): 283.
76.Cit. by: Ibid., p. 283
77. Ibid.
78. Ibid.
79. Chapman, D. (1851) The Great Principles involved in the Present Act of Papal Agression, p. 25. London: Patridge and Oakey.
page 221
offers lambs 80. Consistently, from issue to issue, the satirical magazine Punch attacked Puseyism, publishing texts and cartoons designed to show the ideological identity of "papism" and Puseyism.81 At the rallies held in the country, resolutions were adopted that branded both "papal aggression" and its accomplices.
On the whole, however, Russell's hopes were disappointed. First, by the spring of 1851, the wave of anti-Catholic sentiment had subsided markedly, and the attention of the press and the English public shifted to the opening of the World's Fair in London on May 1. Secondly, as D. Paz has shown, only a third of petitions submitted to the Queen and the Prime Minister in connection with" papal aggression "spoke about the danger of" pro-Roman " tendencies in the Church of England, and in some places some of the clergy blocked their adoption.82 Third, a religious census conducted on Sunday, March 30, 1851, showed that a little more than half of the potential parishioners came to churches of all Christian denominations. This fact shocked many contemporaries, but undoubtedly testified to the far from the best state of institutional religiosity by the standards of the XIX century. This, in turn, meant an increasingly widespread view of religion as a "private matter" and, consequently, a decrease in attention to religious issues as socially significant. Fourth, in church circles, the attitude towards Puseites was more tolerant than in society as a whole. There was no talk of any action to expel the Puseyites from the Church of England. Bishop of London Ch. Blomfield, who was never seen as sympathetic to Tractarianism, in a letter to the clergy of his diocese denounced "papal aggression" in much harsher terms than the Puseyites, refusing to suspect them of" deliberate treachery "and paying tribute to the" zeal "and" self-denial " of Tractarian priests.83 While examining the Gorham case, Blomfield expressed the opinion:
80. See: Paz, D. G. Op. cit., p. 132.
81. See, for example, cartoons: "The Pusey Moth and the Roman Lamp" [Punch. (1850) Vol. 19: 217)," Where is papism and where is Puseyism? " (Punch. (1850) Vol. 20: 15).
82. Paz, D.G. Op. cit., pp. 133, 139.
83. Blomfield, C. J. (1850) A Charge Delivered to the Clergy of the Diocese of London, pp. 48 - 49, 54 - 55. London: B. Fellowes.
page 222
on the need for the church to achieve greater spiritual independence from the state, 84 actually agreed with the Tractarian point of view on the development of relations between the Church of England and the state, which indicated an increase in its popularity among the clergy. Fifthly, the Puzeites themselves actively defended the view that the best defense against "papism" would be the unity of the church and adherence to its teachings.85
Conclusions
Let's summarize. There is no doubt that the Protestant-Catholic conflict at the beginning of the Victorian era was far from over. Anti-Catholicism retained a certain mobilizing potential: only the Protestant was considered as "their own". The emergence of the Oxford movement has brought additional nuances to this long-standing conflict. If earlier "strangers" were outside the Church of England, now they are found inside. To combat them, Prime Minister J. R. R. Tolkien Russell, although he did not believe in the seriousness of the threat of "papal aggression", resorted to artificially fueling anti-Catholic sentiment. This fact alone indicates that the peak of the integrating potential of anti-Catholicism has long been passed. Further developments have shown that an appeal to anti-Catholic sentiment cannot have a long-term political effect.
Puseyite Tractarians gradually managed to dissociate themselves from Roman Catholicism, at least partially dispel suspicions of their "un-English" and stop being perceived exclusively as"strangers". By the end of the nineteenth century, after many battles with the Evangelicals, the Anglo-Catholics, as they were increasingly called, were already a well-established and well-organized faction within the Church of England. In the Anglican University Church of St. John the Baptist. As early as 2010, a plaque was erected in Oxford to commemorate all the "martyrs of the Reformation" - both Catholics and Protestants. From Memorial Pro-
84. Ibid., pp. 38 - 46.
85. See for example: Ingle, J. (1850) Puseyites (so called) no Friends of Popery. A Letter to sir T. Trayton Fuller Elliott Drake. Exeter: Henry J. Wallis.
page 223
The Protestant "martyrs of the Reformation" are several hundred meters away. If the old memorial is a reminder of the times when the Protestant-Catholic conflict was still a political reality, then the new memorial plaque clearly shows that these times have long passed.
Bibliography/References
Vorobyeva V. A. Conflict between Great Britain and the Roman See in 1850-1851: "Papal aggression"//Alpha and Omega. 2000. N4 (26). pp. 319-338.
Solov'eva T. S. Religious policy of Liberal Tories in England (20s of the XIX century). Moscow: MSU Publishing House, 2000.
Stetskevich M. S. Anti-Catholicism and British national identity in Modern times //Empires and Imperialism of the New and modern times, St. Petersburg: Faculty of History, 2009, pp. 178-183.
Stetskevich M. S. Anti-Catholicism and British national identity: problems of historiography//Proceedings of the Department of Modern and Contemporary History of St. Petersburg State University. N7. 2011. SPb.: RKHGA Publishing House, pp. 156-164.
Stetskevich M. S. Protestantism, anti-Catholicism and British national identity of the New time//Christian culture is on the threshold of the third millennium. Proceedings of the Scientific conference, June 12-14, 2000. Series "Symposium", issue 5. St. Petersburg: St. Petersburg Philosophical Society, 2000. pp. 35-41.
Stetskevich M. S. Modern problems of historiography of the Oxford movement // Religion in a changing world. St. Petersburg: SPbU Publishing House, 2012, pp. 228-244.
Atherstone, A. (2003) "The Martyrs Memorial at Oxford", The Journal of Ecclesiastical History 54 (2): 278 - 301
Avis, P. (1986) "The Tractarian Challenge to consensus and the Identity of Anglicanism", Kings Theological Review 9 (1): 14 - 18.
Benson, C. and Esher, V. (1908) The Letters of Queen Victoria. Vol 2. London: John Murray.
Best, G. F. A. (1967) "Popular Protestantism in Victorian Britain", in Ideas and Institutions of Victorian Britain: Essays in honour of George Kitson Clark, p. 115 - 142. London: G. Bell.
Bickersteth, E. (1836) Remarks on the Progress of Popery. London: Published by L. and G. Seeley.
Blomfield, C.J. (1850) A Charge Delivered to the Clergy of the Diocese of London. London: B. Fellowes.
Bowen, D. (1968) The Idea of the Victorian Church. Montreal: McGill University Press.
Brendon, P. (1972) "Newman, Keble and Froudes 'Remains'", The Journal of Ecclesiastical History 87: 697 - 716.
Brendon, P. (1974) Hurrell Froude and the Oxford Movement. London: Paul Elek.
page 224
Brown, S. (2001) National Churches of England, Ireland, Scotland, 1801 - 1846. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Chapman, D. (1851) The Great Principles involved in the Present Act of Papal Agression. London: Patridge and Oakey.
Colley, L. (1994) Britons: Forging the Nation, IJOJ-183J. London: Pimlico.
Conacher, J. B. (1959) "The Politics of the "Papal Aggression" Crisis, 1850 - 1851", in Canadian Catholic Historical Association Report. Vol. 26: 13 - 27.
Crumb, L. (2009) The Oxford Movement and its Leaders: A Bibliography of Secondary and Lesser Primary Sources. Lanham: The Scarecrow Press.
Curnow, K. F. (2010) A Rereading of Tract go. A Thesis submitted ... for the degree of Doctor of Theology. Melbourne: College of Divinity.
Daubeny, C. (1804) A Guide to the Church. London: J. C. and J. Rivington.
Fausset, G. (1838) The Revival of Popery. Oxford: University Press.
Gilley, S. (1990) Newman and His Age. London: Darton, Longman and Todd Ltd.
Gresley, W (1844) Anglo-Catholicism. London: James Burns.
Gresley, W. (1846) A Second Statement of the Real Danger of the Church of England. London: James Burns.
Gresley, W (1846) The Real Danger of the Church of England. London: James Burns.
Imberg, R. (1987) In Quest for Authority: The "Tracts for the Times" and the Development ofTractarian Leaders. Lund: University Press.
Ingle, J. (1850) Puseyites (so called) no Friends of Popery. A Letter to sir T Trayton Fuller Elliott Drake. Exeter: Henry J. Wallis.
Liddon, H. P. (1894) Life of Edward Bouverie Pusey. Vol. 2. London: Longmans, Green and Co.
Machin, G. I. T (1974) "Lord John Russell and the Prelude to The Ecclesiastical Titles Bill, 1846 - 51", The Journal of Ecclesiastical History 25 (3): 277 - 295.
Marsden, J. B. (1856) History of Christian Churches and Sects. Vol. 1. London: Richard Bentley
Nockles, P. (1991) "Oxford, Tract 90 and the Bishops", in John Henry Newman: Reason, Rhetoric and Romanticism. Ed. by D. Nicholls and F. Kerr, pp. 28 - 87. The Bristol Press.
Norman, E. R. (1968) Anti-Catholicism in Victorian England. London: George Allen & Unwm.
Paz, D. G. (1992) Popular Anti-Catholicism in Mid-Victorian Britain. Stanford: Stanford University Press.
Punch. (1850) Vol. 19 - 20.
Ralls, W (1974) "The Papal Aggression of 1850: A Study in Victorian Anti-Catholicism", Church History 34 (2): 242 - 256.
Remains of the late Reverend Richard Hurrell Froude. (1838) Vol. 1. London: Printed for J. C. and J. Rivington.
Solovyeva, T. S. (2000) Religioznnaya politika liberalnyh tori v Anglii (20-e gg. XIX veka) [Religion Policy of Liberal Tories in England (1820s)]. M.: Izdatelstvo MGU.
Steckevich, M.S. (2000) "Protestantism, anticatolicism i britanskoye nacionalnoye samosoznanie Novogo vremeni" [Protestantism, Anticatholicism, and the British National Self-Consciousness of the New Time], in Hristianskaya cultura na poroge tretego tysyachiltiya. Materialy nauchnoi conferencii. 12 - 14 iunya 2000 g. Seri-
page 225
ya "Symposium", vypusk 5, s. 35 - 41. SPb.: Sankt-Peterburgskoye philosophskoye obshestvo.
Steckevich, M. S. (2011) "Anticatolicism i britanskoye nacionalnoye samosoznanie: problemy istorigraphii" [Anticatholicism and the British National Self-Consciousness: Historiographic Problems], in Trudy cafedry istorii Novogo i noveishego vremeni SPBgU, N7, s. 156 - 164. Pb.: Izdatelstvo RHGA.
Steckevich, M.S. (2012) "Sovremennye problemy istorigraphii Oksfordskogo dvigeniya" [Oxford Movement: Current Historiographic Problems], in Religiya v menyayshemsya mire, s. 228 - 244. SPb.: Izdatelstvo SPBgU.
Sumner, J. B. (1838) A Charge Delivered to the Clergy of the Diocese of Chester. London, J. Hatchard and Son.
The Christian Observer. (1833) Vol. 33.
The Christian Observer. (1838) Vol. 38.
The Edinburgh Review. (July 1838) Vol. 67.
The Judgment of the Bishops Upon Tractarian Theology. (1845) Oxford: J. Vincent.
The Mirror of Parliament. Session. (1837 - 1838) Vol. 7. London: Longman.
The Mirror of Parliament. Session of 1841. (1841) Vol. 1. London: Longman.
The Morning Chronicle. (11.03.1841).
The Quarterly Review. (1839) Vol. 63: 531 - 571.
The Quarterly Review. (1843) Vol. 72: 236 - 238.
The Record. (5.12.1833).
The Roman Catholic Question: A Copious Series of Important Documents, of Permanent Historical Interest, on the Re-Establishment of Catholic Hierarchy in England. (1851) London: James Gilbert.
Toon, P. (1979) Evangelical Theology, 1833 - 1856. A Response to Tractarianism. London: Marshall, Morgan and Scott.
Tract N15. On the Apostolical Succession in the English Church [http://www.anglicanhistory.org/tracts/tract15.html, accessed on 04.02.2013].
Tract N2. The Catholic Church, [http://anglicanhistory.org/tracts/tract2.html, accessed on 04.02.2013].
Tract N 20 The Visible Church. No III [http://anglicanhistory.org/tracts/tract20.html, accessed on 04.02.2013].
Tract N 38. Via Media. No. I [http://anglicanhistory.org/tracts/tract38.html, accessed on 04.02.2013].
Tract N 41. Via Media. No II [http://anglicanhistory.org/tracts/tract41.html, accessed on 04.02.2013].
Tract N45. The Grounds of our Faith [http://anglicanhistory.org/tracts/tract45.html, accessed on 04.02.2013].
Tract N 5. A Short Address to His Brethren on the Nature and Constitution of The Church of Christ, and of the Branch of It Established in England. [http://anglicanhistory.org/tracts/tract5.html, accessed on 04.02.2013].
Tract N 90. Remarks on Certain Passages in the Thirty-Nine Articles [http://anglicanhistory.org/tracts/tract90, accessed on 04.02.2013].
Vorobyeva, V. A. (2000) "Conflict mezdu Velikobrtitaniei i Rimskim prestolom v 1850 - 1851 gg.: 'Papskaya agressiya'" [Conflict Between Great Britain and Holy See in 1850 - 1851: "Papal Agression"], Alpha i Omega 4 (26): 319 - 338.
page 226
Walsh, W. (1900) The History of the Romeward Movement in the Church of England, 1833 - 1864. London: James Nisbet and Co, limited.
Wheeler, M. (2006) The Old Enemies: Catholic and Protestant in Nineteenth-Century English Culture. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Wolffe, J. (1991) The Protestant Crusade in Great Britain, 1829 - 1860. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
page 227
New publications: |
Popular with readers: |
News from other countries: |
![]() |
Editorial Contacts |
About · News · For Advertisers |
![]() 2023-2025, ELIBRARY.ORG.UK is a part of Libmonster, international library network (open map) Keeping the heritage of the Great Britain |