Libmonster ID: UK-1548

The paper presents a reconstruction of the dietary features of carriers of five main ancient cultures of Southern Siberia (Afanasyev, Okunevskaya, Andronovskaya, Karasuk and Tagar, XXV-I centuries BC, N ind = 214) using the analysis of dental pathologies. For the first time, the data obtained for this region are compared with the results of an earlier isotope analysis. The study showed that the most significant changes occurred in the diet of the Karasuk and Tagar populations; the inverse relationship between the incidence of caries and tartar in the analyzed population may be associated with a decrease in the amount of animal protein and an increase in the amount of grain in the diet of Karasuk and Tagar people; the frequency of metabolic stress, which led to hypoplasia of tooth enamel, gradually decreased from the Bronze Age early iron age, which may be explained by the beginning of millet cultivation in the region in the XIV century BC; in all populations, the state of the dentoalveolar system worsened with the age of individuals; in most cases, the frequency of various dental pathologies is higher in men, but this result does not correlate with the available isotopic data.

Key words: dental pathologies, Bronze Age, Early Iron Age, Minusinsk basin, diet.

Introduction

Currently, the world science pays great attention to interdisciplinary research aimed at reconstructing the economy and nutrition of the ancient population of various regions. The main axiom of such studies is that the introduction of new industries inevitably leads to a change in the food stereotype. The analysis of dental pathologies is used to study one of the possible consequences of this - changes in the state of the dental system of the population. Interpretation of the results is largely determined by the completeness of complex data, including the archaeological context and data from auxiliary analyses (for example, analysis of stable nitrogen and carbon isotopes of bone collagen). Despite a large volume of studies on the dental pathologies of ancient pastoralists of the Eurasian steppes, only a few of them are supplemented by isotopic data (for example: [Lillie and Richards, 2000; Katzenberg and Weber, 1999; Lieverse et al., 2007; Pechenkina, Benfer, Zhijun, 2002; Pechenkina, Benfer, Jr., Xiaolin, 2007; Murphy et al., 2013]).

The main objectives of our work are to trace the most important changes in the health of the maxillary system of the population of the Minusinsk basin (Southern Siberia) over three millennia (carriers of the Afanasyev, Okunevskaya, Andronovskaya, Karasuk, and Tagar cultures; XXV-I centuries BC) and compare the results with previously obtained isotopic data on the diet of these populations [Svyatko et al. al., 2013].

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Archaeological and isotopic data on diet

According to archaeological data, the economy of the population of the Minusinsk basin under consideration included gathering, hunting, and fishing, and the role of hunting is particularly pronounced in the Okunev materials (Gryaznov, 1969; Vadetskaya, 1986). The time of the emergence of agriculture and the introduction of grain crops in the region is a subject of wide discussion, as, indeed, the importance of grain in the steppes of Eurasia as a whole. Many researchers assume that agriculture was widespread already in the Afanasiev (e.g., Gryaznov and Vadetskaya, 1968) or Okunev (e.g., Nagler, 1999) eras, but there is no direct evidence for this at the moment. The supposed tools for grain processing (pestles, graters, etc.) found on the sites of the Afanasyevskaya, Okunevskaya, Andronovskaya and Karasuk cultures could have been used for processing wild plants or for the production of paints. The earliest direct evidence of grain cultivation dates back to the Early Iron Age: grains, flakes of barley and millet were found in the Tatar burial grounds of Yerbinskaya and Poilovo, and some grains were found on the Lepeshkin monument (Vadetskaya, 1986; Svyatko, 2010). Data on the paleobotany of the West Siberian Plain and Kazakhstan indicate the appearance of grain not earlier than the XVII century BC in the Trans-Urals (barley, rye and wheat) and only in the Late Bronze Age in the Upper Ob region and on the territory of Kazakhstan (mainly millet and barley, as well as oats, wheat and rice). [Ryabogina and Ivanov, 2011].

According to the analysis of stable nitrogen and carbon isotopes [Svyatko et al., 2013], carriers of all five cultures consumed a large amount of animal protein, including fish. A rather sharp increase in the level of Δ13c in the Karasuk and Tatar populations probably indicates the appearance and distribution of millet in the Minusinsk basin approximately in the XIV century BC. This suggests that Southern Siberia was one of the first Siberian regions to start cultivating this grain crop. No significant isotopic differences were found between people of different age categories and genders.

Dental pathologies and diet

The predominance of certain pathologies of the maxillary system is largely due to the individual's diet. Tooth decay, tartar, and the rate of tooth erasure are particularly important markers. The development of caries can be caused by the predominance of soft and sticky foods, as well as a large proportion of carbohydrates in the diet, especially sugar and starch (for example, in the form of cereals or plant roots/bulbs) [Lukacs, 1989; Hillson, 2005; Roberts and Manchester, 2005; Temple and Larsen, 2007]. The relationship between tartar and diet is much more complex. Its formation depends on the pH of saliva, which increases with a large amount of protein food [Hillson, 1979; Wong, 1998]; the level of silicon entering the body with water and plant food (for example: Damen and Ten Cate, 1989]), and the abrasive characteristics of food, which is associated with the processing process: when using, for example, grain grinders, small abrasive particles can penetrate food and contribute to the natural" cleaning " of teeth, but soft and sticky food made from whole grains does not have such qualities [Tur, Kraskova, 2008]. Thus, comparing the levels of caries and tartar allows us to estimate the ratio of protein and carbohydrate foods in the population's diet (for example: [Keenleyside, 2008]). Hypoplasia of tooth enamel indicates a general malnutrition or poor state of health of a person during the formation of his teeth [Larsen, 1997; Goodman, Martin, 2002] and, thus, is a lifelong "imprint" of physiological stress experienced in childhood [Roberts, Manchester, 2005].

Materials and methods

Of the 214 adults analyzed (Tables 1 and 2), 204 have both teeth and alveoli, 3 have only teeth, and 7 have only fragments of alveoli. 36% of the maximum possible number of teeth was preserved (2,437 out of 6,848). Retinated, untreated and partially eroded teeth, as well as teeth represented only by the roots, were excluded from the analysis, since they cannot be affected by the pathological processes described below. 70% of the maximum possible number of dental wells was preserved (4,797 out of 6,848). The wells of non-cut, partially cut or genetically absent teeth were excluded from the analysis, since they are also not subject to the pathological processes described below. However, the holes of the retinated and root-represented teeth were taken into account, since retination can contribute to the development of various pathologies, and the presence of a tooth in the form of a root does not exclude pathological processes around it. The following pathologies were investigated: caries, tartar, periodontal disease, abscess, enamel hypoplasia (GEZ) and lifetime tooth loss (PRUZ). Caries analysis included identifying the affected tooth, determining the position of the caries and its size (small-fossa, medium/large-less than half of the tooth crown is affected, extensive - more than half of the crown is destroyed or all of it is destroyed) [Metress, Conway, 1975]. When accounting for periodontal disease

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Table 1. Analyzed materials

Culture

Monument

Quantity

individuals

zubov

holes

Afanasyevskaya Street

Afanasyev Mountain

4

42

87

 

Karasuk III

13

164

342

Total

 

17(8%)

206 (8 %)

429 (9 %)

Okunevskaya Street

Bateni

1

4

16

 

Okunev Ulus

4

26

86

 

Uybat III

15

135

299

 

Uybat V

23

394

510

 

Upper Askiz I

35

455

818

Total

 

78 (36 %)

1 014 (42 %)

1 728 (36 %)

Andronovskaya Street

Pervomaiskoe I

1

2

8

 

Potroshilovo II

7

175

205

 

Ust-Bir I

11

243

316

Total

 

19(9%)

420 (17%)

529 (11 %)

Karasukskaya Street

Markov Ulus

1

12

32

 

Karasuk I

2

2

28

 

Minusinsk Quarry

1

30

32

 

Okunev Ulus

6

71

158

 

Pervomaiskoe I

2

33

48

 

Podgornoye Ozero I

1

10

32

 

Yarki I

1

6

8

Total

 

14(7%)

164 (7 %)

338 (7 %)

Tagarskaya Street

Badger's Log

1

15

32

 

Grishkin Log I

5

36

124

 

Karasuk III

1

16

32

 

Tortilla cake

1

16

32

 

Melnichny / Badger Logs

2

19

16

 

Nurilkov Ulus

3

25

61

 

Okunev Ulus

9

70

157

 

Podgornoye Lake

23

208

520

 

Saragash Lake

4

42

94

 

Saragash

34

155

613

 

Upper Askiz I

1

0

28

 

Yarki II

2

31

64

Total

 

86 (40 %)

633 (26 %)

1773 (37 %)

Total

 

214 (100%)

2 437 (100 %)

4 797 (100 %)



Table 2. Gender and age structure of the sample

Age

 (n = 98)

♀ (n = 90)

Gender not determined (n = 26)

Total

Nzubov

Nholes

Nzubov

Nholes

Nzubov

Nholes

Nzubov

N holes

Adult (n = 9)

6

16

5

86

1

44

12

146

Young (n = 140)

990

1 535

715

1 389

112

222

1 817

3 146

Young/Medium (n = 8)

32

48

10

63

17

61

60

145

Average (n = 48)

315

707

138

387

28

62

480

1 156

Middle/elderly (n = 4)

34

63

2

15

2

16

38

94

Elderly (n = 5)

22

15

8

95

-

-

30

110

Total (n = 214)

1 399

2 384

878

2 008

160

405

2 437

4 797



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We were guided by their descriptions (no lesion, small, moderate, and significant), tartar (small, medium, and significant deposits), and abscess (external and internal) [Brothwell, 1981]. It is worth noting that in many cases the tartar deposits were clearly lost or cleaned. If there were clear traces of them, the teeth were considered as affected by a stone. Thus, in this case, counting individuals may be more reliable than counting teeth. Standard methods were used to determine the gender and age of individuals (Buikstra and Ubelaker, 1994). Individuals were divided into the following age categories: young (20-34 years old), middle - aged (35-49 years old), and elderly (over 50 years old).

Results

Dental decay. Overall, 2 % (5/207) of individuals and < 1 % (7/2437) of teeth were affected. All individuals come from the Tatar burial grounds of Lepeshkin, Nurilkov Ulus and Saragash. Four of them are young (two) and middle (two) aged men and one young woman.

Although the number of cases of caries is too small to draw unambiguous conclusions, it is clearly more common in men. Among the affected teeth, there are mainly molars (the first one, the second three, and the third two) and only one premolar. Distal (small and medium), occlusal (three small) and multiple (small distal and buccal, medium distal and mesial) caries were detected. Small lesions are more common.

Abscesses. This is a more common disease compared to caries (Table 3). Carriers of the Tagar culture were most affected (24% of individuals), and the Karasuk population was least affected (7%). Tagar residents also had the highest percentage of wells affected by abscesses (2 % vs. 1 % in other groups), which also indicates their greater susceptibility to the disease. Among the carriers of Okunevskaya and Tagar cultures, men were more susceptible to abscesses than women (Table 3). In Andronovo residents, the disease was more common in women, which, however, may be a consequence of insufficient sampling. A strong positive correlation was found between the age of individuals and the incidence of abscesses: from <1 % of affected wells and 8 % of individuals for young people to 11 and 100%, respectively, for middle-aged and elderly people (Table 4).

Periodontal disease. In general, carriers of all five cultures were found to have a high level of the disease (Table 5). However, in most cases, the degree of periodontal disease development is weak. Men were more susceptible to this disease than women (a difference of 7%). %

Distribution of the sample with abscesses by gender, Table 3. %

Culture

Men

Women

Gender is not defined

Total

Nindividuals

Nholes

Nindividuals

Nholes

Nindividuals

Nholes

Nindividuals

N holes

Afanasyevskaya Street

29 (2/7)

2 (4/200)

0 (0/9)

0 (0/197)

100(1/1)

6 (2/32)

18(3/17)

1 (6/429)

Okunevskaya Street

19 (7/36)

1 (11/866)

15 (5/34)

1 (9/771)

25 (2/8)

5(5/91)

18(14/76)

1 (25/1 728)

Andronovskaya Street

14 (2/14)

1 (2/391)

20(1/5)

1 (1/138)

-

-

16(3/19)

1 (3/529)

Karasukskaya Street

0 (0/2)

0 (0/47)

10(1/10)

2 (4/245)

0 (0/2)

0 (0/46)

7(1/14)

1 (4/338)

Tagarskaya Street

28(11/39)

2(19/880)

25 (8/32)

2 (15/657)

7(1/15)

<1 (1/236)

24 (20/85)

2 (35/1 773)

Total

23 (22/97)

2 (36/2 384)

17(15/89)

1 (29/2 008)

16(4/25)

2 (8/405)

19(41/211)

2 (73/4 797)



Note: here and later in the tables, the number of corresponding individuals, teeth, or holes is shown in parentheses, followed by the number of examined individuals.

See Table 4. Age structure of the sample with abscesses, %

Age

Nindividuals

N holes

Young

8(9/137)

<1 (15/3 146)

Young/Medium

25 (2/8)

1 (2/145)

Average

40 (19/48)

3(38/1 156)

Medium/Old age

100 (4/4)

11 (10/94)

Elderly

40 (2/5)

5(5/110)

Adult

11 (1/9)

1 (1/146)

Total

19(41/211)

1 (71/4 800)



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in Afanasiev residents, up to 24 % in Andronovo residents, Table 6). The results showed a positive correlation between the age of individuals and the degree of development of periodontal disease (Table 7).

Tartar. The majority of the population recorded tartar deposition (93-100% of individuals), but the number of affected teeth in the groups varied slightly (65-91%). Men were slightly more susceptible to the development of tartar than women (Table 8). In addition, in all groups, with the exception of Okunevskaya, women had fewer teeth affected. At the latest, by about 35 years of age, almost all people had tartar (Table 9).

Lifetime loss of teeth. At least 34 % of the population was exposed to PRD (in many cases, only fragments of alveoli are available for analysis). Traces of this are visible in 7 % of the wells. The Tatar population was most affected by PRUZ, and the Karasuk population was least affected. The highest percentage of teeth lost during life is also in the Tagar group, and the lowest is in the Afanasiev and Karasuk groups (Table 10). Women, with the exception of native speakers of the Andronovo culture (possibly due to a limited sample), were slightly more susceptible to PRD than men (both in terms of the number of individuals and the number of teeth). The results also revealed a positive correlation between people's age and the frequency of lifetime tooth loss (Table 11).

Erased teeth (exposed pulp). Only 3% of individuals and <1% of teeth were found to have exposed pulp (Table 12). Cases were recorded only in carriers of Okunevskaya, Andronovskaya and Tagar cultures. Their number is extremely small, but it can be noted that in all groups men have more teeth with exposed pulp and the proportion of such teeth increases with age (among young people, two individuals, two teeth; in the middle age category, four and eight, respectively).

See Table 5. Distribution of individuals by the presence and degree of development of periodontal disease, %

Culture

There is no disease

Weak

Average

Significant

Total patients with the disease

Afanasievskaya (n = 15)

47(7)

53(8)

0

0

53(8)

Okunevskaya (n = 73)

51 (37)

34 (25)

11 (8)

4(3)

49 (36)

Andronovskaya Street (n = 19)

42(8)

26(5)

16(3)

16(3)

58(11)

Karasukskaya (n = 14)

93(13)

7(1)

0

0

7(1)

Tagarskaya (n = 71)

42 (30)

44(31)

13(9)

1 (1)

58(41)

Total (n = 192)

49 (95)

36 (70)

10 (20)

4(7)

51 (97)



Table 6. Distribution of individuals with periodontal disease by gender, %

Culture

Gender is not defined

Total

Afanasyevskaya Street

57 (4/7)

50 (4/8)

-

53(8/15)

Окуневская

53 (18/34)

44 (14/32)

57 (4/7)

49 (36/73)

Андроновская

64 (9/14)

40 (2/5)

-

58(11/19)

Карасукская

0 (0/2)

10(1/10)

0 (0/2)

7(1/14)

Тагарская

64 (23/36)

50 (12/24)

55(6/11)

58(41/71)

Total

58 (54/93)

42 (33/79)

50 (10/20)

51 (97/192)



Table 7. Age structure of the sample with periodontal disease, %

Age

There is no disease

Degree of development

Total patients with the disease

Weak

Average

Significant

Young (n = 130)

64 (83)

32(41)

4(5)

1 (1)

36 (47)

Young/Medium (n = 8)

50(4)

25(2)

25(2)

0

50(4)

Average (n = 43)

9(4)

53 (23)

23 (10)

14(6)

91 (39)

Middle/elderly (n = 4)

0

75(3)

25(1)

0

100 (4)

Elderly (n = 3)

67(2)

0

33(1)

0

33(1)

Adult (n = 4)

50(2)

25(1)

25(1)

0

50(2)

Total (n = 192)

49 (95)

38 (72)

11 (21)

5(9)

51 (97)



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Table 8. Distribution of the sample with tartar by gender, %

Culture

Men

Women

Gender is not defined

Total

Nindividuals

Nzubov

Nindividuals

Nzubov

Nindividuals

Nzubov

Nindividuals

Nzubov

Afanasyevskaya Street

100 (7/7)

94(95/101)

89 (8/9)

80 (68/85)

100(1/1)

100 (20/20)

94 (16/17)

89(183/206)

Okunevskaya Street

100(35/35)

90(521/579)

94(31/33)

94 (360/382)

100(7/7)

76(39/51)

97 (73/75)

91 (920/1 012)

Andronovskaya Street

100(14/14)

85(266/313)

100 (5/5)

83(89/107)

_

_

100(19/19)

85 (355/420)

Karasukskaya Street

100 (2/2)

100(8/8)

90(9/10)

56(70/126)

100(2/2)

97 (29/30)

93 (13/14)

65(107/164)

Tagarskaya Street

100(39/39)

89 (352/398)

97 (28/29)

82 (146/178)

92(12/13)

84 (48/57)

98(79/81)

82 (519/633)

Total

100(97/97)

87(1 215/1 399)

94(81/86)

83 (733/878)

96 (22/23)

86(136/158)

97 (200/206)

86 (2 084/2 435)



Table 9. Age structure of the sample with tartar, %

Age

Nindividuals

Nzubov

Young

99(137/139)

85(1 543/1 817)

Young/Medium

100 (8/8)

97 (57/59)

Average

100 (47/47)

88(425/481)

Medium/Old age

100 (3/3)

75 (27/36)

Elderly

67 (2/3)

80 (24/30)

Adult

50 (3/6)

67 (8/12)

Total

97 (200/206)

86 (2 084/2 435)



Table 10. Distribution of the sample with PRZ by gender, %

Culture

Men

Women

Gender is not defined

Total

Nindividuals

Nholes

Nindividuals

Nzlunok

Nindividuals

Nholes

Nindividuals

Nholes

Afanasyevskaya Street

14(1/7)

1 (2/200)

22 (2/9)

4 (7/197)

0(0/1)

0 (0/32)

18 (3/17)

2 (9/429)

Okunevskaya Street

24(10/36)

8 (35/866)

39 (13/33)

9(69/771)

29 (2/7)

3(3/91)

33 (25/76)

6(107/1 728)

Andronovskaya Street

36 (5/14)

12(45/391)

20(1/5)

1 (1/138)

-

-

32 (6/19)

9 (46/529)

Karasukskaya Street

0 (0/2)

0 (0/47)

10(1/10)

3 (8/245)

0 (0/2)

0 (0/46)

7(1/14)

2 (8/338)

Tagarskaya Street

42(16/38)

6(51/880)

53 (17/32)

16(107/657)

27 (4/15)

7(16/236)

44 (37/85)

10(174/1 773)

Total

33 (32/97)

6(133/2 384)

38 (34/89)

10 (192/2 008)

24 (6/25)

5(19/405)

34(72/211)

7 (344/4 797)



Table 11. Age structure of the sample with PRZ, %

Age

Nindividuals

N holes

Young

18 (25/137)

2(73/3 146)

Young/Medium

38 (3/8)

4(6/145)

Average

63 (30/48)

12(143/1 156)

Medium/Old age

50 (2/4)

4 (4/94)

Elderly

100 (5/5)

70(77/110)

Adult

78 (7/9)

28(41/146)

Total

34(72/211)

7 (344/4 797)



Hypoplasia of tooth enamel. At least 67% of the population and 20% of the teeth were affected by GEZ (Table 1). 13; in many cases, the disease cannot be detected due to tartar deposits or post-mortem injuries). The percentage of individuals with signs of hypoplasia varies from 58 in the Tatar group to 82 in the Afanasiev group, and teeth - from 16 in the Andronovo group to 31 in the Afanasiev group. Thus, the Afanasiev population

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it was most susceptible to GEZ. There are significantly fewer individuals with this pathology among Karasuk and Tagar residents. In all groups, with the exception of the Karasuk group (possibly due to the limited sample size), men were more susceptible to HEZ than women (Table 13). The highest percentage of hypoplasia is observed in young individuals (Table 14), which is consistent with previous studies (e.g., [Keenleyside, 2008]) and supports the hypothesis that people who have experienced physiological stress in childhood are more likely to die at a young age (Duray, 1996).

In general, the main changes in the state of the human dental and maxillary system occurred in the Karasuk and Tatar epochs (pl. 15; see the drawing). U ka-

Table 12. Number of individuals and teeth with exposed pulp

Culture

Men

Women

Gender is not defined

Total

Nindividuals

Nzubov

Nindividuals

Nzubov

Nindividuals

Nzubov

Nindividuals

Nzubov

Okunevskaya Street

2

4

1

1

-

-

3

5

Andronovskaya Street

1

1

-

-

-

-

1

1

Tagarskaya Street

1

3

-

-

1

1

2

4

Total

4

8

1

1

1

1

6

10



Table 13. Distribution of the GEZ sample by gender, %

Culture

Men

Women

Gender is not defined

Total

Nindividuals

Nzubov

Nindividuals

Nzubov

Nindividuals

Nzubov

Nindividuals

Nzubov

Afanasyevskaya Street

86 (6/7)

14(14/101)

78 (7/9)

45 (38/85)

100(1/1)

60(12/20)

82 (14/17)

31 (64/206)

Okunevskaya Street

85 (28/33)

16 (90/571)

61 (19/31)

18(68/374)

67 (4/6)

14(7/49)

73(51/70)

17(165/994)

Andronovskaya Street

79(11/14)

14(43/313)

60 (3/5)

21 (23/107)

-

-

74 (14/19)

16(66/420)

Karasukskaya Street

0 (0/2)

0 (0/8)

67 (6/9)

20(24/119)

100 (2/2)

23 (7/30)

62 (8/13)

20(31/157)

Tagarskaya Street

66 (25/38)

24 (96/394)

52 (15/29)

26 (47/178)

46(6/13)

18(10/57)

58 (46/80)

24 (153/629)

Total

74 (70/94)

 

60 (50/83)

 

59(13/22)

 

67(133/199)

 



Table 14. Age structure of the sample with GEZ, %

Age

Nindividuals

Nzubov

Young

75 (103/137)

21 (373/1 808)

Young/Medium

38 (3/8)

14(8/59)

Average

58 (26/45)

20 (95/475)

Medium/Old age

0 (0/3)

0 (0/36)

Elderly

50(1/2)

13(3/23)

Adult

0 (0/4)

0 (0/5)

Total

67 (133/199)

20 (479/2 406)



State of the dentoalveolar system in the considered populations, Table 15. %

Culture

Dental decay

Abscess

Periodontal disease, ind.

Tartar treatment

PRUZ

Pulp exposure

GEZ

Ind.

Zubov

Ind.

Holes

Ind.

Zubov

Ind.

Holes

Ind.

Zubov

Ind.

Zubov

Afanasyevskaya Street

0

0

18

1

53

94

88

18

2

0

0

82

31

Okunevskaya Street

0

0

18

1

49

97

90

33

6

4

<1

73

17

Andronovskaya Street

0

0

16

1

58

100

85

32

9

5

<1

74

16

Karasukskaya Street

0

0

7

1

5

93

65

7

2

0

0

62

20

Tagarskaya Street

2

<1

24

2

58

98

82

44

10

2

1

58

24



page 149

Dynamics of dental system pathologies in the considered populations, a - percentage of the number of culture carriers; b - percentage of the number of teeth/holes in this group.

In the Rasuk population, it became significantly better than in previous periods, which was manifested in lower levels of such pathologies as tartar, PRUS, and periodontal disease (Table 16). However, the state of the dental-maxillary system in the native Tatar culture has noticeably worsened due to the appearance of caries and a higher percentage of tooth decay than even in the previous Karasuk eras. However, the levels of enamel hypoplasia and tartar have become much lower than in these epochs.

Discussion of the results

Caries and tartar. As noted earlier, the incidence of caries increases in populations that consume carbohydrate-rich cereals (Table 17). K. S. Larsen and co-authors even came to the conclusion that the 7% value is the boundary between groups with an appropriating and agricultural economy (Larsen, Shavit, Griffin, 1991). The majority of Neolithic - Early Iron Age Eurasian foragers/pastoralists recorded no or very low percentage of caries (Table 18). An exception is the Early Iron Age population of Tuva and Altai (Tur and Kraskova, 2008; Tur, in print; Murphy et al., 2013). In particular, in the population of Tuva, this indicator was significantly higher than in the inhabitants of the Minusinsk basin of the same period, although, according to the results of isotope analysis, the diet of both groups included a fairly large amount of millet [Murphy et al., 2013]. An interesting suggestion was made by S. S. Tur: perhaps, in the nutrition of the population of Tuva and Altai, there is an important role in the diet of the population of Tuva and Altai.

Table 16. Results of the χ 2 test for dental pathologies of individuals of the considered epochs

Pathology

Afanasyevskaya - Andronovskaya : karasukskaya

Afanasyevskaya - Andronovskaya : Tagarskaya

N

2(1)

p

N

2(1)

P

Dental decay

Ind.

112 :0

-

-

112:81

7,097

0,008

 

Zubov

1 642 : 0

-

-

1 642 : 633

18,214

<0,001

Abscess

Ind.

112: 14

1,029

0,310

112:85

0,961

0,327

 

Holes

2 689 : 338

0,016

0,900

2 689 : 1 773

3,534

0,060

Periodontal disease

Ind.

107: 19

13,911

<0,001

107:71

0,691

0,406

Tartar treatment

Ind.

111 : 14

0,791

0,374

111 :81

0,010

0,920

 

Zubov

1 640: 164

72,609

<0,001

1 640 : 633

19,264

<0,001

PRUZ

Ind.

112: 14

3,343

0,067

112 :85

3,637

0,056

 

Holes

2 689 : 338

7,578

0,006

2 689 : 1 773

22,034

<0,001

Pulp exposure

Ind.

112: 14

0,516

0,472

112:81

0,190

0,663

 

Zubov

1 642 : 164

0,601

0,438

1 642 : 633

0,741

0,389

GEZ

Ind.

106: 13

0,994

0,319

106: 157

5,998

0,014

 

Zubov

1 619:80

0,222

0,638

1 619:629

10,574

0,001



page 150

Table 1 7. Frequency of occurrence of caries in the population with different types of economy, %

Region

Assigning function

Mixed version

Agricultural

A source

Zubov

Individuals

Zubov

Individuals

Zubov

Individuals

Northern China (Neolithic - Middle Ages)

 

27

 

56

 

 

[Eng, 2007]

Central Japan

1,72

 

4,37

 

8,56

 

[Turner, 1979]

North America (Indians of the VIII-XVI centuries)

 

4,1 (0,4 - 7,8)

 

 

 

23,95 (4,5 - 43,4)

[Milner, 1984]

Southeastern United States (10th century BC-16th century AD)

1,3

9,0

 

 

11,4

58,9

[Larsen, Shavit, Griffin, 1991]

Analysis of global data

1,3 (0 - 5,3)

 

4,8 (0,4 - 10,3)

 

10,4 (2,3 - 26,9)

 

[Lukacs, 1989]



The role was played by the starch-rich roots and bulbs of plants [Tur, in print]. Tartar, on the contrary, was quite widespread among the pastoralists of Bronze Age Eurasia. However, by the early iron age, the level of this pathology gradually decreased (Table 18), which is interpreted as a result (at least in part) of consuming more carbohydrates [Murphy et al., 2013].

For the analyzed individuals of the Minusinsk basin, the appearance of caries in the Early Iron Age was recorded. This may indicate a significant change in diet, possibly related to an increase in grain intake. Also, the percentage of tartar in the Karasuk and Tatar cultures increased slightly, but statistically significantly (p < 0.001, see Table). 16) lower than the population of previous eras. Thus, there is an inverse relationship between the frequency of occurrence of tartar and caries. This trend was also noted earlier for the ancient population of Southern Siberia (for example: [Tur, in print]). Most likely, this dependence is regulated by the level of acidity (pH) of plaque-a common factor for both diseases, which, in turn, depends on the ratio of protein and carbohydrates in the diet [Ibid.]. Apparently, the decrease in the incidence of tartar in the Karasuk and Tatar populations and the appearance of caries in Tagars is associated with the consumption of less animal protein and a wider use of cereals in the diet.

Hypoplasia of tooth enamel. According to various data, GEZ is more often manifested in farmers/pastoralists than in hunter-gatherers (Larsen, 1995). This is attributed to epidemics as a result of an increase in population size and density, food shortages, and the peculiarities of switching children to an adult diet, which could provoke a lack of nutrients (summarized in [Keenleyside, 2008]). Nevertheless, according to our data, the frequency of occurrence of GEZS in the inhabitants of the Minusinsk Basin gradually decreased from the Bronze Age to the Early Iron Age (these data are consistent with the results of previous studies, see Table 18). It is possible that the distribution of millet in the region in the XIV century BC [Svyatko et al., 2013] favored the development of the GEZS in the overall reduction in the level of metabolic stress.

Gender and age differences. In all the analyzed groups, the state of the dentoalveolar system of people worsened with age, which is probably primarily due to general biological, rather than cultural and dietary factors. In most cases, men were more susceptible to caries, abscesses, periodontal disease, tartar, GEZ, and pulp exposure (both in terms of the number of individuals and the number of teeth). PRUS, however, was more common in women. At the moment, it is not clear whether this difference is caused by biological or dietary factors. A higher incidence of pulp exposure in men may indicate a more abrasive diet (although none of the analyzed population groups had a pronounced abrasive diet). A number of researchers believe that men and women show different sensitivity to environmental stresses. For example, according to some data (summarized in [Guatelli-Steinberg, Lukacs, 1999]), women are more resistant to infectious, parasitic diseases and hunger. It was previously noted in the literature that among the inhabitants of the Middle Katun (Gorny Altai) of the Early Iron Age, women were more susceptible to caries, while men were more susceptible to tartar deposition [Tur and Kraskova, 2008]. In the population of the same period that left the Ai-Dai monument (Minusinsk basin), a greater susceptibility of men to the development of caries and abscesses was recorded [Murphy et al., 2013]. Both these and other data were interpreted as an indicator of various disparities in grain consumption between men and women, possibly related to sexual differentiation in the process of cultivation and processing of these crops. It is important to note that for the isotopic data-

page 151

Table 18. Frequency of occurrence of caries, tartar and GEZ in the population of the Eurasian steppes of the Bronze Age-the beginning of the Iron Age, %

Culture

Region / monument

Dental decay

Tartar treatment

GEZ, Nind.

A source

Nzubov

Nind.

Nzubov

Nind.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

Mesolithic - Neolithic

...

Dnipro rapids, Ukraine

0

0

62,5 (1 464)

86,7(105)

11,4(105)

[Lillie, 1996]

Late Mesolithic - Early Bronze Age

Kitoyskaya, Serovskaya, Glazkovskaya

Baikal Region

0 - 0,9

...

3,7 - 29,3

...

...

[Lieverse et al., 2007]

The Bronze Age

Yamnaya Street

Different

 

5(110)

...

...

...

[Kruz, 1984]

"

Cheboksary

 

11 (18)

...

88 (17)

32

[Schultz, 1991]

"

Stavropol Region

0

0(4)

...

100(4)

60(5)

[Mednikova, 2006]

Novotitorovskaya Street

North Caucasus

<1*

...

...

100

50

[Dobrovolskaya, 2005]

Different

Prikubanye

<1*

...

...

100

50

[Ibid.]

Afanasyevskaya Street

Altai

0

0

...

88,9

...

[Tour, Rykun, 2006]

"

"

0

0

98,1 (828)

100(45)

...

[Tour, in print]

"

"

0

0

...

22,2 (9)

50(6)

[Mednikova, 2005]

"

Minusinsk basin

0

0(4)

...

40(5)

66,7

[Ibid.]

"

 

0

0

89 (206)

94(17)

82(17)

This study

Okunevskaya Street

The same thing

0

0

91 (1 012)

97 (75)

73 (70)

The same thing

Catacomb Street

 

<1*

...

...

100

40

[Dobrovolskaya, 2005]

Vostochnomanychskaya

Stavropol Territory

0

0(4)

...

50(4)

75(4)

[Mednikova, 2006]

North Caucasus Region

The same thing

0

0(7)

...

33,3 (6)

80(5)

[Ibid.]

Andronovskaya Street

Minusinsk basin

0

0

85 (420)

100(19)

74(19)

This study

"

 

0

0

...

...

62,5(12)

[Mednikova, 2005]

"

Altai

0,5 (1 273)

2,4 (83)

...

...

...

[Tour, Rykun, 2008]

"

Forest-steppe Altai

0

0

92,7 (1 186)

100(75)

...

[Tour, in print]

Log cabin

Samara region.

0,2 (1 732)

...

...

...

...

[Anthony et al., 2005]

"

 

<1*

...

...

100

50

[Dobrovolskaya, 2005]

Karasukskaya Street

Minusinsk basin

...

10(10)

...

10(10)

44,4(10)

[Mednikova, 2005]

"

The same thing

0

0

65(164)

93 (14)

62(13)

This study

The beginning of the Iron Age

Tagarskaya of the Minusinsk basin

Different

<1

2

82 (633)

98(81)

58 (80)

The same thing

The same thing

Ai-Dai

1,9

13,6

83,8

97,7

...

[Murphy et al., 2013]



page 152

Continuation of Table 18

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

Tagarskaya of the Minusinsk basin

Tagarsky Island

0

0(57)

...

...

25,7 (35)

[Mednikova, 2005]

The same thing

Samokhval

...

2,2 (48)

...

...

16 (48)

[Ibid.]

"

Kyzyl-Kul

...

0,1 (110)

...

...

19,1 (110)

"

"

New Mochagi

0

0(19)

...

...

10,5(19)

"

"

Sukhanikha

 

10

...

50

33

"

"

 

0,6(7 261)

5 (140)

...

...

...

[Koshkin, 1974]

...

North-Western Mongolia

...

4,3 (23)

...

...

0(23)

[Naran, 1997]

...

Chandman Burial Ground

...

2,3 (85)

...

...

0

[Ibid.]

Uyukskaya Street

Tuva, Aimyrlyg

6,4

39,6

77,2

93,5

...

[Murphy et al., 2013]

Kamenskaya Street

Right Ob region

5,9 - 12,4

37,4 - 61,0

84,3

100 (128)

...

[Tour, in print]

"

Left Ob region

2,3 - 2,9

20,9 - 31,3

90,3

100 (105)

...

[Ibid.]

"

Rudny Altai

0 - 2,3

0 - 27,3

80,4

100 (26)

...

"

Staroaleyskaya Street

Upper Ob region

3,5 - 7,8

33,3 - 61,8

73,7

100 (85)

...

"

Pazyrykskaya street

Srednyaya Katun

11,5

73,2

...

...

...

[Tour, Kraskova, 2008]

"

The same thing

7,1 - 15,3

52,9 - 78,0

67,2

89,5 (84)

...

[Tour, in print]

"

South-Eastern Altai

1,0 - 3,3

10,0 - 33,3

96,7

100(15)

...

[Ibid.]

"

The same thing

...

17,7

...

...

...

[Chikisheva, 2003]

...

Altai, Ulandryk river

...

0 - 6,2(31)

...

...

...

[Ibid.]

...

Altai, Yustyd river

...

6,7 - 13,3 (30)

...

...

...

"

...

Altai, Barbugazy and Buguzun rivers

...

25,0 - 36,4 (19)

...

...

...

"

...

Altai, srednyaya Chuya

...

0 - 37,5 (17)

...

...

...

"

...

Altai, Ukok

...

11,1 - 16,7 (21)

...

...

...

"

...

Central Altai

...

20,0 - 40,0 (10)

...

...

...

"

Kara-Kobinskaya

Altai

...

0(8)

...

...

...

"

Sargatskaya Street

Rivers Tobol, Ishim, Irtysh, Barabinsk steppe

<0,1 (2 598)

1 (160)

...

...

...

[Razhev, 2009]

Sarmatians

Volgograd region.

...

4(39)

...

...

...

[Pererva, 2002]

"

Ustyurt Plateau

...

8(50)

...

...

...

[Bagdasarova, 2000]

Sauromats

The same thing

...

13 (75)

...

...

...

[Ibid.]

The Scythians

Middle Don region

0

0

...

...

...

[Kozlovskaya, 1997]

The Scythians

Stavropol Region

0

0

...

...

...

[Mednikova, 2000]

"

Chertomlyk

...

32

...

...

...

[Schultz, 1991]

"

Nikolaevka-Kazatskoe

...

25(131)

...

...

...

[Konduktorova, 1979]



page 153

End of Table 18

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

Chernyakhovskaya Street

...

......

30 (47)

...

...

...

[Konduktorova, 1972]

Jetyasarskaya

...

 

50 (58)

...

...

...

[Buzhilova, 1995]

Saray-Hola

Pakistan

4,4(815)

53 (36)

...

...

...

[Lukacs, 1989]

Timargara

Northern Pakistan

7,2(615)

...

...

...

...

[Ibid.]

Nomads

Hungary

3,7 (1 249)

...

...

...

...

[Ubelaker, Pap, 1998]



Notes: the sample size is shown in parentheses; data for generalized Bronze Age series is marked with an asterisk.

No significant sex differences were found in the study [Svyatko et al., 2013; Murphy et al., 2013].

Dental pathologies and isotopic data. Changes in the state of the dentoalveolar system that occurred in the Karasuk and Tatar eras indicate a change in the diet. However, the data obtained on dental pathologies are not entirely consistent with the results of isotope analysis [Svyatko et al., 2013]. The latter indicate a decrease in the proportion of animal protein in the diet of both the Karasuk and Tatar populations, compared with the carriers of the Afanasiev, Okunev and Andronovo cultures. However, according to the results of the analysis of dental pathologies, the state of the dental system of Karasuk residents improved, while in the Tatar era it became much worse. Caries appeared only in Tagar residents. Nevertheless, the carbon isotope levels suggest about 25-30% of millet in the protein component of the diet of carriers of both Karasuk and Tatar cultures [Ibid., 2010]. One of the reasons for the discrepancy between the data from these two sources may be the lack of representativeness of the sample for the Karasuk population (only 14 individuals were available for analysis of dental pathologies).

Key findings

1. Significant changes in the state of the dentoalveolar system occurred during the Karasuk and Tatar epochs: the Karasuk population improved significantly (possibly due to insufficient sample size), while the Tagar population, on the contrary, became much worse (this may be due to an increase in the proportion of cereals in the human diet, which is confirmed by isotope analysis).

2. The decrease in the incidence of tartar in the Karasuk and Tatar eras and the appearance of caries in Tagars may also be associated with the consumption of more grains and less animal protein. These data coincide with the results of isotope analysis.

3. The incidence of tooth enamel hypoplasia gradually decreased from the Bronze Age to the Early Iron Age. It is possible that the spread of millet in the Minusinsk basin in the XIV century BC contributed to a decrease in the level of metabolic stress in the population.

4. The state of the dentoalveolar system of people worsened with age, which is most likely due to general physiological factors.

5. In most cases, men had higher levels of various dental pathologies, with the exception of PRUS. At the moment, it is not clear whether this trend is related to general physiological characteristics or to nutrition. Sex differences in dental pathologies do not correlate with isotope analysis data.

Taking into account the imperfection of the sample, we can conclude that, in general, the data obtained on dental pathologies of the Eneolithic - Early Iron Age population of the Middle Yenisei are consistent with the archaeological context and with the main conclusions of isotope analysis, and also do not contradict the results of studies in neighboring regions. The introduction of a new grain crop (millet) in the XIV century BC led to a change in the diet of people and a deterioration in the state of the dentoalveolar system.

Acknowledgements

The study was supported by the 14 CHRONO Centre for Climate, the Environment and Chronology, Queen's University of Belfast, the Atlantic Philanthropies Foundation, and the Department for Employment and Learning, Northern Ireland. Northern Ireland) (grant D9901CHR). Anthropological materials were provided by the Museum of Anthropology and Ethnography. Peter the Great (Kunstkamera, St. Petersburg) and the Minusinsk Museum of Local Lore named after N. M. Martyanov (Minusinsk). I would like to express my gratitude to Dr. A. Murphy, Professor J. Mallory (Queen's University Belfast), Dr. R. Shallting (Oxford University), Candidate of Historical Sciences V. I. Khartanovich and Doctor of Historical Sciences Yu. K. Chis-

page 154

tovu (Museum of Anthropology and Ethnography named after V. I. Abramovich). Peter the Great) for their thorough and patient scientific guidance, Candidate of Historical Sciences S. S. Tur (Altai State University, Barnaul) for the most valuable recommendations and help with literature, Dr. A. Shitvov and Dr. G. Bondarenko (Queen's University Belfast) for comments on the manuscript of this article.

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The article was submitted to the Editorial Board on 30.01.13, and the final version was published on 01.02.13.

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